Issenberg SB, McGaghie WC, Petrusa ER, Lee Gordon D, Scalese RJ. Features and uses of high-fidelity medical simulations that lead to effective learning: a BEME systematic review. Med Teach. 2005;27:10–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590500046924

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McGaghie WC, Issenberg SB, Petrusa ER, Scalese RJ. A critical review of simulation-based medical education research: 2003–2009. Med Educ. 2010;44:50–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03547.x

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cook DA, Brydges R, Hamstra SJ, Zendejas B, Szostek JH, Wang AT, et al. Comparative effectiveness of technology-enhanced simulation versus other instructional methods: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Simul Healthc J Soc Simul Healthc. 2012;7:308–20. https://doi.org/10.1097/SIH.0b013e3182614f95

Article  Google Scholar 

Beal MD, Kinnear J, Anderson CR, Martin TD, Wamboldt R, Hooper L. The Effectiveness of Medical Simulation in Teaching Medical Students Critical Care Medicine: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Simul Healthc J Soc Simul Healthc. 2017;12:104–16. https://doi.org/10.1097/SIH.0000000000000189

Article  Google Scholar 

Elendu C, Amaechi DC, Okatta AU, Amaechi EC, Elendu TC, Ezeh CP, et al. The impact of simulation-based training in medical education: A review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2024;103:e38813. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000038813

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Alonso-Peña M, Álvarez Álvarez C. Clinical simulation in health education: a systematic review. Investig Educ En Enfermeria. 2023;41:e08. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.v41n2e08

Article  Google Scholar 

Guinez-Molinos S, Castillo B, Espinoza Carrasco P. Simulación clínica online para estudiantes de ciencias de la salud durante la pandemia de COVID-19. Educ Médica. 2023;24:100843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edumed.2023.100843

Shahrezaei A, Sohani M, Taherkhani S, Zarghami SY. The impact of surgical simulation and training technologies on general surgery education. BMC Med Educ. 2024;24:1297. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-06299-w

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cardoso SA, Suyambu J, Iqbal J, Cortes Jaimes DC, Amin A, Sikto JT, et al. Exploring the Role of Simulation Training in Improving Surgical Skills Among Residents: A Narrative Review. Cureus. 2023;15:e44654. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.44654

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bajwa J, Munir U, Nori A, Williams B. Artificial intelligence in healthcare: transforming the practice of medicine. Future Healthc J. 2021;8:e188–94. https://doi.org/10.7861/fhj.2021-0095

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Preiksaitis C, Rose C. Opportunities, Challenges, and Future Directions of Generative Artificial Intelligence in Medical Education: Scoping Review. JMIR Med Educ. 2023;9:e48785. https://doi.org/10.2196/48785

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beheshti M, Toubal IE, Alaboud K, Almalaysha M, Ogundele OB, Turabieh H, et al. Evaluating the Reliability of ChatGPT for Health-Related Questions: A Systematic Review. Informatics. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute; 2025;12:9. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics12010009

Article  Google Scholar 

Wu J, Ma Y, Wang J, Xiao M. The Application of ChatGPT in Medicine: A Scoping Review and Bibliometric Analysis. J Multidiscip Healthc. 2024;17:1681–92. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S463128

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aster A, Laupichler MC, Rockwell-Kollmann T, Masala G, Bala E, Raupach T. ChatGPT and Other Large Language Models in Medical Education — Scoping Literature Review. Med Sci Educ. 2025;35:555–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-024-02206-6

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Performance of ChatGPT on USMLE: Potential for AI-assisted medical education using large language models. [cited 2025 Nov 16]; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pdig.0000198

Sallam M. ChatGPT Utility in Healthcare Education, Research, and Practice: Systematic Review on the Promising Perspectives and Valid Concerns. Healthcare. 2023;11:887. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11060887

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hu N, Jiang XQ, Wang YD, Kang YM, Xia Z, Chen HH, et al. Status and perceptions of ChatGPT utilization among medical students: a survey-based study. BMC Med Educ. 2025;25:831. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07438-7

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Burney IA, Ahmad N. Artificial Intelligence in Medical Education: A citation-based systematic literature review. J Shifa Tameer-E-Millat Univ. 2022;5:43–53. https://doi.org/10.32593/jstmu/Vol5.Iss1.183

Article  Google Scholar 

Martinez FT, Soto JP, Valenzuela D, González N, Corsi J, Sepúlveda P. Virtual Clinical Simulation for Training Amongst Undergraduate Medical Students: A Pilot Randomised Trial (VIRTUE-Pilot). Cureus. 2023;15:e47527. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.47527

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kollerup NK, Johansen SS, Tolsgaard MG, Friis ML, Skov MB, van Berkel N. Clinical needs and preferences for AI-based explanations in clinical simulation training. Behav Inf Technol. 2025;44:954–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2024.2334852

Article  Google Scholar 

Yang Y, Liu X, Jin Q, Huang F, Lu Z. Unmasking and quantifying racial bias of large language models in medical report generation. Commun Med. 2024;4:176. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43856-024-00601-z

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Xie Y, Seth I, Rozen WM, Hunter-Smith DJ. Evaluation of the Artificial Intelligence Chatbot on Breast Reconstruction and Its Efficacy in Surgical Research: A Case Study. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2023;47:2360–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-023-03443-7

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lim B, Seth I, Xie Y, Kenney PS, Cuomo R, Rozen WM. Exploring the Unknown: Evaluating ChatGPT’s Performance in Uncovering Novel Aspects of Plastic Surgery and Identifying Areas for Future Innovation. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2024;48:2580–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-024-03952-z

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Presentamos GPT-5 [Internet]. 2025 [cited 2025 Oct 27]. https://openai.com/es-ES/index/introducing-gpt-5/. Accessed 27 Oct 2025

Abuabara A, do Nascimento TVPM, Trentini SM, Costa Gonçalves AM, Hueb de Menezes-Oliveira MA, Madalena IR, et al. Evaluating the accuracy of generative artificial intelligence models in dental age estimation based on the Demirjian’s method. Front Dent Med. 2025;6:1634006. https://doi.org/10.3389/fdmed.2025.1634006

McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic. Biochem Medica. 2012;22:276–82.

Article  Google Scholar 

Shoemaker SJ, Wolf MS, Brach C. Development of the Patient Education Materials Assessment Tool (PEMAT): a new measure of understandability and actionability for print and audiovisual patient information. Patient Educ Couns. 2014;96:395–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2014.05.027

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wahr JA, Prager RL, Abernathy JH, Martinez EA, Salas E, Seifert PC, et al. Patient safety in the cardiac operating room: human factors and teamwork: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013;128:1139–69. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182a38efa

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gillan SN, Saleh GM. Ophthalmic surgical simulation: a new era. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2013;131:1623–4. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2013.1011

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Neri-Vela R. El origen del uso de simuladores en Medicina. Rev Fac Med UNAM. 2018;60:21–7.

Google Scholar 

Nurko J, Unzek S, Gitler R, Magaña F, Hurtado D, Padilla L, et al. El simulador «Harvey» de paciente cardiológico. La utilización de simuladores, computadoras y equipo multimedia en el aprendizaje de la cardiología. An Méd Asoc Médica Cent Méd ABC. Medigraphic; 2000;45:134–9.

Google Scholar 

Caudron O. Former les sages-femmes des campagnes: Madame du Coudray, l’Aunis et la Saintonge (1765–1782). Ecrits Ouest. Société rochelaise d’histoire moderne et contemporaine; 2013;17–28.

McGaghie WC, Issenberg SB, Cohen ER, Barsuk JH, Wayne DB. Does simulation-based medical education with deliberate practice yield better results than traditional clinical education? A meta-analytic comparative review of the evidence. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2011;86:706–11. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e318217e119

Article  Google Scholar 

Putz F, Kattan E, Maestre JM. Use of clinical simulation to train healthcare teams in conflict management: A scoping review. Enfermeria Clin. 2022;32:21–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfcle.2021.03.001

Article  Google Scholar 

Seam N, Lee AJ, Vennero M, Emlet L. Simulation Training in the ICU. Chest. 2019;156:1223–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2019.07.011

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kuyt K, Mullen M, Fullwood C, Chang TP, Fenwick J, Withey V, et al. The assessment of a manikin-based low-dose, high-frequency cardiac resuscitation quality improvement program in early UK adopter hospitals. Adv Simul Lond Engl. 2021;6:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41077-021-00168-y