Bevan RJ, Kreiling R, Levy LS, Warheit DB (2018) Toxicity testing of poorly soluble particles, lung overload and lung cancer. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 100:80–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.10.006

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Black KCL, Ibricevic A, Gunsten SP et al (2016) In vivo fate tracking of degradable nanoparticles for lung gene transfer using PET and Ĉerenkov imaging. Biomaterials 98:53–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.04.040

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Brunot C, Ponsonnet L, Lagneau C, Farge P, Picart C, Grosgogeat B (2007) Cytotoxicity of polyethyleneimine (PEI), precursor base layer of polyelectrolyte multilayer films. Biomaterials 28(4):632–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.09.026

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Casper J, Schenk SH, Parhizkar E, Detampel P, Dehshahri A, Huwyler J (2023) Polyethylenimine (PEI) in gene therapy: current status and clinical applications. J Control Release 362:667–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.09.001

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chien H-W, Chiu T-H, Lee Y-L (2021) Rapid biocidal activity of N-halamine-functionalized polydopamine and polyethylene imine coatings. Langmuir 37(26):8037–8044. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c01256

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cho WS, Cho M, Jeong J, Choi M, Cho H-Y, Han BS, Kim SH, Kim HO, Lim YT, Chung BH (2009) Acute toxicity and pharmacokinetics of 13 nm-sized PEG-coated gold nanoparticles. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 236(1):16–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2008.12.023

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cho WS, Duffin R, Howie SE et al (2011) Progressive severe lung injury by zinc oxide nanoparticles; the role of Zn2+ dissolution inside lysosomes. Part Fibre Toxicol 8(1):27. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-8-27

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Choi HS, Liu W, Misra P et al (2007) Renal clearance of quantum dots. Nat Biotechnol 25(10):1165–1170. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt1340

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Choi HS, Ashitate Y, Lee JH et al (2010) Rapid translocation of nanoparticles from the lung airspaces to the body. Nat Biotechnol 28(12):1300–1303. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt.1696

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cortez-Jugo C, Masoumi S, Chan PPY, Friend J, Yeo L (2022) Nebulization of siRNA for inhalation therapy based on a microfluidic surface acoustic wave platform. Ultrason Sonochem 88:106088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2022.106088

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dai CC, Yang J, Hussein WM et al (2020) Polyethylenimine: an intranasal adjuvant for liposomal peptide-based subunit vaccine against Group A Streptococcus. ACS Infect Dis 6(9):2502–2512. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00452

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Delaney S, Rodriguez C, Sarrett SM, Dayts EJ, Zeglis BM, Keinänen O (2023) Unraveling the in vivo fate of inhaled micro- and nanoplastics with PET imaging. Sci Total Environ 904:166320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166320

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fan Y, Pan D, Yang M, Wang X (2023) Radiolabelling and in vivo radionuclide imaging tracking of emerging pollutants in environmental toxicology: a review. Sci Total Environ 866:161412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161412

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ghanem R, Buin X, Haute T et al (2025) Impact of nebulizers on nanoparticles-based gene delivery efficiency: in vitro and in vivo comparison of jet and mesh nebulizers using branched-polyethyleneimine. Drug Deliv 32(1):2463428. https://doi.org/10.1080/10717544.2025.2463428

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

He Y, Wang Y, Wang L, Jiang W, Wilhelm S (2024) Understanding nanoparticle-liver interactions in nanomedicine. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 21(6):829–843. https://doi.org/10.1080/17425247.2024.2375400

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jeong J, Jeon S, Kim S et al (2023) Effect of sp3/sp2 carbon ratio and hydrodynamic size on the biodistribution kinetics of nanodiamonds in mice via intravenous injection. Part Fibre Toxicol 20(1):33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-023-00545-7

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kazemi Oskuee R, Dabbaghi M, Gholami L et al (2018) Investigating the influence of polyplex size on toxicity properties of polyethylenimine mediated gene delivery. Life Sci 197:101–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2018.02.008

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim HR, Lee K, Park CW et al (2016) Polyhexamethylene guanidine phosphate aerosol particles induce pulmonary inflammatory and fibrotic responses. Arch Toxicol 90(3):617–632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-015-1486-9

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim S-H, Jeon S, Lee D-K et al (2020) The early onset and persistent worsening pulmonary alveolar proteinosis in rats by indium oxide nanoparticles. Nanotoxicology 14(4):468–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/17435390.2019.1694184

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee Y-L, Setyo HD, Silvia YF et al (2024) Eosinophilic inflammation: a key player in COPD pathogenesis and progression. Ann Med 56(1):2408466. https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2024.2408466

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mikula P, Mlnarikova M, Takahashi H et al (2018) Branched poly(ethylene imine)s as anti-algal and anti-cyanobacterial agents with selective flocculation behavior to cyanobacteria over algae. Macromol Biosci 18(10):1800187. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201800187

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Moghimi SM, Symonds P, Murray JC, Hunter AC, Debska G, Szewczyk A (2005) A two-stage poly(ethylenimine)-mediated cytotoxicity: implications for gene transfer/therapy. Mol Ther 11(6):990–995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymthe.2005.02.010

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mohammadi N, Fayazi Hosseini N, Nemati H, Moradi-Sardareh H, Nabi-Afjadi M, Kardar GA (2024) Revisiting of properties and modified polyethylenimine-based cancer gene delivery systems. Biochem Genet 62(1):18–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10528-023-10416-7

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Munir M, Jena L, Kett VL, Dunne NJ, McCarthy HO (2022) Spray drying: inhalable powders for pulmonary gene therapy. Biomater Adv 133:112601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2021.112601

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mushtaq S, Park JE, Shim HE et al (2022) Study on biological distribution of polyhexamethylene guanidine (PHMG), a toxic household chemical, using radiolabeling and molecular imaging tools. Environ Eng Res 27(5):210393–210400. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2021.393

Article  Google Scholar 

Oberdörster G, Oberdörster E, Oberdörster J (2005) Nanotoxicology: an emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ Health Perspect 113(7):823–839. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7339

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pan D, Xu Y, Wang X et al (2023) Evaluation the in vivo behaviors of PM2.5 in rats using noninvasive PET imaging with mimic particles. Chemosphere 339:139663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139663

Article