Virani SS, Newby LK, Arnold SV, Bittner V, Brewer LC, Demeter SH, et al. 2023 AHA/ACC/ACCP/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline for the management of patients with chronic coronary disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2023;82:833–955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2023.04.003

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

World Health Organisation. 2024. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cardiovascular-diseases-(cvds)

Sreeniwas Kumar A, Sinha N. Cardiovascular disease in India: a 360 degree overview. Med J Armed Forces India. 2020;76:1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mjafi.2019.12.005

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Libby P, Buring JE, Badimon L, Hansson GK, Deanfield J, Bittencourt MS, et al. Atherosclerosis. Nat Rev Dis Primer. 2019;5:56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-019-0106-z

Article  Google Scholar 

Dhingra R, Vasan RS. Biomarkers in cardiovascular disease: Statistical assessment and section on key novel heart failure biomarkers. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2017;27:123–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcm.2016.07.005

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hoefer IE, Steffens S, Ala-Korpela M, Bäck M, Badimon L, Bochaton-Piallat M-L, et al. Novel methodologies for biomarker discovery in atherosclerosis. Eur Heart J. 2015;36:2635–42. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehv236.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yin M, Loyer X, Boulanger CM. Extracellular vesicles as new pharmacological targets to treat atherosclerosis. Eur J Pharmacol. 2015;763:90–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.06.047

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wallentin L, Eriksson N, Olszowka M, Grammer TB, Hagström E, Held C, et al. Plasma proteins associated with cardiovascular death in patients with chronic coronary heart disease: a retrospective study. PLOS Med. 2021;18:e1003513. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003513.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ku EJ, Cho K-C, Lim C, Kang JW, Oh JW, Choi YR, et al. Discovery of plasma biomarkers for predicting the severity of coronary artery atherosclerosis by quantitative proteomics. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2020;8:e001152. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjdrc-2019-001152.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kristensen LP, Larsen MR, Mickley H, Saaby L, Diederichsen ACP, Lambrechtsen J, et al. Plasma proteome profiling of atherosclerotic disease manifestations reveals elevated levels of the cytoskeletal protein vinculin. J Proteomics. 2014;101:141–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2013.12.011

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wei Q, Li K, Su L, Cen T, Sooranna SR, Pan X, et al. Plasma proteomics implicate glutamic oxaloacetic transaminases as potential markers for acute myocardial infarction. J Proteomics. 2024;308:105286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2024.105286

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Haas B, Serchi T, Wagner DR, Gilson G, Planchon S, Renaut J, et al. Proteomic analysis of plasma samples from patients with acute myocardial infarction identifies haptoglobin as a potential prognostic biomarker. J Proteomics. 2011;75:229–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2011.06.028

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

LaFramboise WA, Dhir R, Kelly LA, Petrosko P, Krill-Burger JM, Sciulli CM, et al. Serum protein profiles predict coronary artery disease in symptomatic patients referred for coronary angiography. BMC Med. 2012;10:157. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-10-157.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bhosale SD, Moulder R, Venäläinen MS, Koskinen JS, Pitkänen N, Juonala MT, et al. Serum proteomic profiling to identify biomarkers of premature carotid atherosclerosis. Sci Rep. 2018;8:9209. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-27265-9

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Song M, Bai H, Zhang P, Zhou X, Ying B. Promising applications of human-derived saliva biomarker testing in clinical diagnostics. Int J Oral Sci. 2023;15:2. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41368-022-00209-w

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Doyle L, Wang M. Overview of extracellular vesicles, their origin, composition, purpose, and methods for exosome isolation and analysis. Cells. 2019;8:727. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8070727

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kalluri R, LeBleu VS. The biology, function, and biomedical applications of exosomes. Science. 2020;367:eaau6977. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau6977

Zamani P, Fereydouni N, Butler AE, Navashenaq JG, Sahebkar A. The therapeutic and diagnostic role of exosomes in cardiovascular diseases. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2019;29:313–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcm.2018.10.010

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lener T, Gimona M, Aigner L, Börger V, Buzas E, Camussi G, et al. Applying extracellular vesicles based therapeutics in clinical trials—an ISEV position paper. J Extracell Vesicles. 2015;4:30087. https://doi.org/10.3402/jev.v4.30087.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sharma P, Dhamija RK, Nag TC, Roy A, Inampudi KK. Different biofluids, small extracellular vesicles or exosomes: structural analysis in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease using electron microscopy techniques. Microsc Microanal. 2023;29:1168–77. https://doi.org/10.1093/micmic/ozad025

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huang DW, Sherman BT, Tan Q, Kir J, Liu D, Bryant D, et al. DAVID bioinformatics resources: expanded annotation database and novel algorithms to better extract biology from large gene lists. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007;35:W169–75. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkm415.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ge SX, Jung D, Yao R. ShinyGO: a graphical gene-set enrichment tool for animals and plants. Bioinformatics. 2020;36:2628–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btz931

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kanehisa M, Furumichi M, Tanabe M, Sato Y, Morishima K. KEGG: new perspectives on genomes, pathways, diseases and drugs. Nucleic Acids Res. 2017;45:D353–61. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkw1092.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sharma P, Roy A, Dhamija RK, Bhushan S, Baswal K, Kulandaisamy R, et al. A comprehensive proteomic profiling of urinary exosomes and the identification of early non-invasive biomarker in patients with coronary artery disease. J Proteomics. 2024;293:105059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2023.105059

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dragovic RA, Gardiner C, Brooks AS, Tannetta DS, Ferguson DJP, Hole P, et al. Sizing and phenotyping of cellular vesicles using nanoparticle tracking analysis. Nanomed Nanotechnol Biol Med. 2011;7:780–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2011.04.003

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Pang Z, Lu Y, Zhou G, Hui F, Xu L, Viau C, et al. MetaboAnalyst 6.0: towards a unified platform for metabolomics data processing, analysis and interpretation. Nucleic Acids Res. 2024;52:W398–406. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkae253

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li M, Gao X, Wang H, Zhang M, Li X, Wang S, et al. Phosphoglycerate mutase 2 is elevated in serum of patients with heart failure and correlates with the disease severity and patient’s prognosis. Open Med. 2021;16:1134–42. https://doi.org/10.1515/med-2021-0324/html.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Inker LA, Schmid CH, Tighiouart H, Eckfeldt JH, Feldman HI, Greene T, et al. Estimating glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine and cystatin C. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:20–9. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1114248.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Einwoegerer CF, Domingueti CP. Association between increased levels of cystatin C and the development of cardiovascular events or mortalit