Dityatev, A. & Schachner, M. Extracellular matrix molecules and synaptic plasticity. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4, 456–468 (2003).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fawcett, J. W. et al. The extracellular matrix and perineuronal nets in memory. Mol. Psychiatry 27, 3192–3203 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sorg, B. A. et al. Casting a wide net: role of perineuronal nets in neural plasticity. J. Neurosci. 36, 11459–11468 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Golding, J. P., Tidcombe, H., Tsoni, S. & Gassmann, M. Chondroitin sulphate-binding molecules may pattern central projections of sensory axons within the cranial mesenchyme of the developing mouse. Dev. Biol. 216, 85–97 (1999).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hodebourg, R., Kalivas, P. W. & Kruyer, A. Extrasynaptic therapeutic targets in substance use and stress disorders. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 43, 56–68 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wei, R., Zhou, J., Bui, B. & Liu, X. Glioma actively orchestrate a self-advantageous extracellular matrix to promote recurrence and progression. BMC Cancer 24, 974 (2024).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ghorbani, S. & Yong, V. W. The extracellular matrix as modifier of neuroinflammation and remyelination in multiple sclerosis. Brain 144, 1958–1973 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Malcangio, M. & Sideris-Lampretsas, G. How microglia contribute to the induction and maintenance of neuropathic pain. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 26, 263–275 (2025).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hynes, R. O. & Naba, A. Overview of the matrisome — an inventory of extracellular matrix constituents and functions. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 4, a004903 (2012).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Naba, A. et al. The matrisome: in silico definition and in vivo characterization by proteomics of normal and tumor extracellular matrices. Mol. Cell. Proteom. 11, M111.014647 (2012).

Article  Google Scholar 

Hartmann, U. & Maurer, P. Proteoglycans in the nervous system — the quest for functional roles in vivo. Matrix Biol. 20, 23–35 (2001).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Djerbal, L., Lortat-Jacob, H. & Kwok, J. Chondroitin sulfates and their binding molecules in the central nervous system. Glycoconj. J. 34, 363–376 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lindwall, C., Fothergill, T. & Richards, L. J. Commissure formation in the mammalian forebrain. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 17, 3–14 (2007).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gude, F. et al. Hedgehog is relayed through dynamic heparan sulfate interactions to shape its gradient. Nat. Commun. 14, 758 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nagy, G. N. et al. Structure and function of semaphorin-5a glycosaminoglycan interactions. Nat. Commun. 15, 2723 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Long, K. R. et al. Extracellular matrix components HAPLN1, lumican, and collagen i cause hyaluronic acid-dependent folding of the developing human neocortex. Neuron 99, 702–719.e706 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kwok, J. C. et al. Chondroitin sulfates in the developing rat hindbrain confine commissural projections of vestibular nuclear neurons. Neural Dev. 7, 6 (2012).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yamaguchi, Y. Lecticans: organizers of the brain extracellular matrix. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 57, 276–289 (2000).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dityatev, A., Seidenbecher, C. I. & Schachner, M. Compartmentalization from the outside: the extracellular matrix and functional microdomains in the brain. Trends Neurosci. 33, 503–512 (2010).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lupori, L. et al. A comprehensive atlas of perineuronal net distribution and colocalization with parvalbumin in the adult mouse brain. Cell Rep. 42, 112788 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van ‘t Spijker, H. M. & Kwok, J. C. F. A sweet talk: the molecular systems of perineuronal nets in controlling neuronal communication. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 11, 33 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vo, T. et al. The chemorepulsive axon guidance protein semaphorin3A is a constituent of perineuronal nets in the adult rodent brain. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 56, 186–200 (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Beurdeley, M. et al. Otx2 binding to perineuronal nets persistently regulates plasticity in the mature visual cortex. J. Neurosci. 32, 9429–9437 (2012).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pizzorusso, T. et al. Reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex. Science 298, 1248–1251 (2002).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dyck, S. et al. Perturbing chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan signaling through LAR and PTPσ receptors promotes a beneficial inflammatory response following spinal cord injury. J. Neuroinflammation 15, 90 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lang, B. T. et al. Modulation of the proteoglycan receptor PTPσ promotes recovery after spinal cord injury. Nature 518, 404–408 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shen, Y. et al. PTPσ is a receptor for chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan, an inhibitor of neural regeneration. Science 326, 592–596 (2009).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Borisoff, J. F. et al. Suppression of Rho-kinase activity promotes axonal growth on inhibitory CNS substrates. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 22, 405–416 (2003).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Saghatelyan, A. K. et al. Reduced perisomatic inhibition, increased excitatory transmission, and impaired long-term potentiation in mice deficient for the extracellular matrix glycoprotein tenascin-R. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 17, 226–240 (2001).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baidoe-Ansah, D. et al. Neurocan regulates axon initial segment organization and neuronal activity. Matrix Biol. 136, 22–35 (2025).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Favuzzi, E. et al. Activity-dependent gating of parvalbumin interneuron function by the perineuronal net protein brevican. Neuron 95, 639–655.e610 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed