Alberti KGMM, Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ, Cleeman JI, Donato KA, et al. Harmonizing the metabolic syndrome. Circulation. 2009;120(16):1640–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hirode G, Wong RJ. Trends in the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the United States, 2011–2016. JAMA. 2020;323(24):2526–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zimmet P, Alberti K, Stern N, Bilu C, El-Osta A, Einat H, et al. The Circadian Syndrome: is the Metabolic Syndrome and much more! J Intern Med. 2019;286(2):181–91.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shi Z, Tuomilehto J, Kronfeld-Schor N, Alberti GK, Stern N, El-Osta A, et al. The circadian syndrome predicts cardiovascular disease better than metabolic syndrome in Chinese adults. J Intern Med. 2021;289(6):851–60.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu Y, Zang B, Shao J, Ning N, He L, Ma Y. Predictor of cognitive impairment: metabolic syndrome or circadian syndrome. BMC Geriatr. 2023;23(1):408.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang Y, Yang L, Zhang Y, Liu J. Relationship between circadian syndrome and stroke: A cross-sectional study of the national health and nutrition examination survey. Frontiers in Neurology. 2022;13:946172. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2022.946172.

Xiong Y, Zhong Q, Zhang Y, Liu Z, Wang X. The association between circadian syndrome and chronic kidney disease in an aging population: a 4-year follow-up study. Front Endocrinol. 2024;15:1338110. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1338110.

Zimmet P, Alberti KGMM, Stern N, Bilu C, El-Osta A, Einat H, et al. The circadian syndrome: is the metabolic syndrome and much more! J Intern Med. 2019;286(2):181–91.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sato T, Sato S. Circadian regulation of metabolism: commitment to health and diseases. Endocrinology. 2023;164(7): bqad086. https://doi.org/10.1210/endocr/bqad086.

Fatima N, Rana S. Metabolic implications of circadian disruption. Pflügers Arch Eur J Physiol. 2020;472(5):513–26.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Akbar Z, Shi Z. Dietary patterns and circadian syndrome among adults attending NHANES 2005–2016. Nutrients. 2023;15(15):3396. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153396.

Alsheikh R, Aldulaimi H, Hinawi R, Al-Sadi F, Al-Baker A, Alkuwari A, et al. Association of serum magnesium and calcium with metabolic syndrome: a cross-sectional study from the Qatar-biobank. Nutr Metab. 2025;22(1):8.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Arabi A, Nasrallah D, Mohsen S, Abugharbieh L, Al-Hashimi D, AlMass S, et al. Association between serum vitamin D status and circadian syndrome: a cross-sectional study. Nutrients. 2024;16(13): 2111. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16132111.

Dasgupta A, Sarma D, Saikia UK. Hypomagnesemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2012;16(6):1000–3.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Găman M-A, Dobrică E-C, Cozma M-A, Antonie N-I, Stănescu AMA, Găman AM, et al. Crosstalk of magnesium and serum lipids in dyslipidemia and associated disorders: a systematic review. Nutrients. 2021;13(5):1411.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Arab A, Rafie N, Amani R, Shirani F. The role of Magnesium in sleep health: a systematic review of available literature. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2023;201(1):121–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Morton DJ, James MF. Effect of magnesium ions on rat pineal N-acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.5) activity. J Pineal Res. 1985;2(4):387–91.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Billyard AJ, Eggett DL, Franz KB. Dietary magnesium deficiency decreases plasma melatonin in rats. Magnes Res. 2006;19(3):157–61.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang Y, Chen C, Lu L, Knutson KL, Carnethon MR, Fly AD, et al. Association of magnesium intake with sleep duration and sleep quality: findings from the CARDIA study. Sleep. 2022;45(4):zsab276. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab276.

Zhao B, Deng H, Li B, Chen L, Zou F, Hu L, et al. Association of magnesium consumption with type 2 diabetes and glucose metabolism: a systematic review and pooled study with trial sequential analysis. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2020;36(3):e3243.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jeong YM, Dias C, Diekman C, Brochon H, Kim P, Kaur M, et al. Magnesium regulates the circadian oscillator in cyanobacteria. J Biol Rhythms. 2019;34(4):380–90.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

de Melo JRF, Gutsch A, Caluwe T, Leloup JC, Gonze D, Hermans C, et al. Magnesium maintains the length of the circadian period in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 2021;185(2):519–32.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

DiNicolantonio JJ, O’Keefe JH, Wilson W. Subclinical magnesium deficiency: a principal driver of cardiovascular disease and a public health crisis. Open Heart. 2018;5(1):e000668.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cowan AE, Jun S, Tooze JA, Eicher-Miller HA, Dodd KW, Gahche JJ, et al. Total usual micronutrient intakes compared to the dietary reference intakes among U.S. adults by food security status. Nutrients. 2019;12(1):38. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010038.

Rosanoff A, Weaver CM, Rude RK. Suboptimal magnesium status in the United States: are the health consequences underestimated? Nutr Rev. 2012;70(3):153–64.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

James JD, James HOK, William W. Subclinical magnesium deficiency: a principal driver of cardiovascular disease and a public health crisis. Open Heart. 2018;5(1):e000668.

Article  Google Scholar 

He K, Liu K, Daviglus ML, Morris SJ, Loria CM, Van Horn L, et al. Magnesium intake and incidence of metabolic syndrome among young adults. Circulation. 2006;113(13):1675–82.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shi Z, Abou-Samra AB. Association of low serum magnesium with diabetes and hypertension: findings from Qatar Biobank study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2019;158:107903.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nielsen FH. Chapter 31 - Relation between Magnesium Deficiency and Sleep Disorders and Associated Pathological Changes. In: Watson RR, editor. Modulation of Sleep by Obesity, Diabetes, Age, and Diet. San Diego: Academic Press; 2015. p. 291–6.

Chapter  Google Scholar 

Evangelopoulos AA, Vallianou NG, Panagiotakos DB, Georgiou A, Zacharias GA, Alevra AN, et al. An inverse relationship between cumulating components of the metabolic syndrome and serum magnesium levels. Nutr Res. 2008;28(10):659–63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guerrero-Romero F, Rodríguez-Morán M. Low serum magnesium levels and metabolic syndrome. Acta Diabetol. 2002;39(4):209–13.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Luo X, Tang M, Wei X, Peng Y. Association between magnesium deficiency score and sleep quality in adults: a population-based cross-sectional study. J Affect Disord. 2024;358:105–12.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhao S, Hu J, Yue C, Tian J, Zhou S, Zhu Q. Dietary magnesium intake is associated with self-reported short sleep duration but not self-reported sleep disorder. Brain Behav. 2025;15(2):e70251.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Alberti KG, Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ, Cleeman JI, Donato KA, et al. Harmonizing the metabolic syndrome: a joint interim statement of the International Diabetes Federation Task Force on Epidemiology and Prevention; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; American Heart Association; World Heart Federation; International Atherosclerosis Society; and International Association for the Study of Obesity. Circulation. 2009;120(16):1640–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ahluwalia N, Dwyer J, Terry A, Moshfegh A, Johnson C. Update on NHANES dietary data: focus on collection, release, analytical considerations, and uses to inform public policy. Adv Nutr. 2016;7(1):121–34.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Krebs-Smith SM, Pannucci TE, Subar AF, Kirkpatrick SI, Lerman JL, Tooze JA, et al. Update of the Healthy Eating Index: HEI-2015. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2018;118(9):1591–602.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central