Ahmadirad N, Fathollahi Y, Janahmadi M et al (2021) The role of α adrenergic receptors in mediating the inhibitory effect of electrical brain stimulation on epileptiform activity in rat hippocampal slices. Brain Res 1765:147492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2021.147492

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Alshammery S, Patel S, Jones HF et al (2022) Common targetable inflammatory pathways in brain transcriptome of autism spectrum disorders and tourette syndrome. Front Neurosci 16:999346 Published 2022 Dec 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.999346

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Augustine F, Singer HS (2019) Merging the pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy of tics. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 8:595 Published 2019 Jan 9. https://doi.org/10.7916/D8H14JTX

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baumgaertel C, Skripuletz T, Kronenberg J et al (2019) Immunity in Gilles de La Tourette-Syndrome: results from a cerebrospinal fluid study. Front Neurol 10:732 Published 2019 Jul 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.00732

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Brockie S, Hong J, Fehlings MG (2021) The role of microglia in modulating neuroinflammation after spinal cord injury. Int J Mol Sci 22(18):9706. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22189706. Published 2021 Sep 8

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Carthy E, Ellender T, Histamine (2021) Neuroinflammation and neurodevelopment: A review. Front Neurosci 15:680214 Published 2021 Jul 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.680214

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

DiSabato DJ, Quan N, Godbout JP (2016) Neuroinflammation: the devil is in the details. J Neurochem 139(Suppl 2):136–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.13607

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dunn AJ (2006) Effects of cytokines and infections on brain neurochemistry. Clin Neurosci Res 6(1–2):52–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnr.2006.04.002

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Farhat LC, Behling E, Landeros-Weisenberger A et al (2023) Comparative efficacy, tolerability, and acceptability of Pharmacological interventions for the treatment of children, adolescents, and young adults with tourette’s syndrome: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 7(2):112–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(22)00316-9

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Flanders CA, Rocke AS, Edwardson SA, Baillie JK, Walsh TS (2019) The effect of dexmedetomidine and clonidine on the inflammatory response in critical illness: a systematic review of animal and human studies. Crit Care.;23(1):402. Published 2019 Dec 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-019-2690-4

Godar SC, Mosher LJ, Di Giovanni G, Bortolato M (2014) Animal models of tic disorders: a translational perspective. J Neurosci Methods 238:54–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.09.008

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Guyon A, Skrzydelski D, De Giry I et al (2009) Long term exposure to the chemokine CCL2 activates the nigrostriatal dopamine system: a novel mechanism for the control of dopamine release. Neuroscience 162(4):1072–1080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.048

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hongyan L, Mengjiao Z, Chunyan W, Yaruo H (2019) Rhynchophylline attenuates neurotoxicity in tourette syndrome rats. Neurotox Res 36(4):679–687. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12640-019-00059-1

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hsu CJ, Wong LC, Lee WT (2021) Immunological dysfunction in tourette syndrome and related disorders. Int J Mol Sci 22(2):853. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22020853. Published 2021 Jan 16

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hyoju SK, Zaborina O, van Goor H (2020) SARS-CoV-2 and the sympathetic immune response: dampening inflammation with antihypertensive drugs (Clonidine and Propranolol). Med Hypotheses 144:110039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110039

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Karrenbauer BD, Müller CP, Ho YJ et al (2011) Time-dependent in-vivo effects of interleukin-2 on neurotransmitters in various cortices: relationships with depressive-related and anxiety-like behaviour [published correction appears in J neuroimmunol. 2011;240–241:152-3]. J Neuroimmunol 237(1–2):23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.05.011

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kumar A, Williams MT, Chugani HT (2015) Evaluation of basal ganglia and thalamic inflammation in children with pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with Streptococcal infection and tourette syndrome: a positron emission tomographic (PET) study using 11 C-[R]-PK11195. J Child Neurol 30(6):749–756. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073814543303

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kutuk MO, Tufan AE, Kilicaslan F et al (2024) Cytokine expression profiles in children and adolescents with tic disorders. Sci Rep 14(1):15101 Published 2024 Jul 2. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-62121-z

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lennington JB, Coppola G, Kataoka-Sasaki Y et al (2016) Transcriptome analysis of the human striatum in tourette syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 79(5):372–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.07.018

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li Y, Wang X, Yang H, Li Y, Gui J, Cui Y (2022) Profiles of Proinflammatory cytokines and T cells in patients with tourette syndrome: A Meta-Analysis. Front Immunol 13:843247. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.843247. Published 2022 May 26

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lin L, Yu L, Xiang H et al (2019) Effects of acupuncture on behavioral stereotypies and brain dopamine system in mice as a model of tourette syndrome. Front Behav Neurosci 13:239. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00239. Published 2019 Oct 15

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liu X, Wang X, Cao A, Zhang X (2021) Immune function changes of the IDPN-induced tourette syndrome rat model. Int J Dev Neurosci 81(2):159–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/jdn.10085

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Longhitano L, Distefano A, Murabito P et al (2022) Propofol and α2-Agonists attenuate microglia activation and restore mitochondrial function in an. Antioxid (Basel) 11(9):1682 Published 2022 Aug 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11091682. Vitro Model of Microglia Hypoxia/Reoxygenation

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lv J, Liang S, Qin P et al (2025) WWC1 mutation drives dopamine dysregulation and synaptic imbalance in tourette’s syndrome. Sci Adv 11(13):eadr4588. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adr4588

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Marazziti D, Palermo S, Arone A et al (2023) Obsessive-Compulsive disorder, PANDAS, and tourette syndrome: Immuno-inflammatory disorders. Adv Exp Med Biol 1411:275–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7376-5_13

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Márquez-Valadez B, Aquino-Miranda G, Quintero-Romero MO et al (2019) The systemic administration of the Histamine H1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist Chlorpheniramine to pregnant rats impairs the development of Nigro-Striatal dopaminergic neurons. Front Neurosci 13:360 Published 2019 Apr 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00360

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Morer A, Chae W, Henegariu O, Bothwell AL, Leckman JF, Kawikova I (2010) Elevated expression of MCP-1, IL-2 and PTPR-N in basal ganglia of tourette syndrome cases. Brain Behav Immun 24(7):1069–1073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2010.02.007

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rankin JS, Zalcman SS, Zhu Y, Siegel A (2013) Short- and long-term effects of interleukin-2 treatment on the sensitivity of periadolescent female mice to interleukin-2 and dopamine uptake inhibitor. PLoS ONE 8(5):e64473 Published 2013 May 24. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0064473

Article