American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edn (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

van Straten, A. et al. The prevalence of insomnia disorder in the general population: a meta-analysis. J. Sleep Res. 34, e70089 (2025).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wickwire, E. M. et al. Untreated insomnia increases all-cause health care utilization and costs among Medicare beneficiaries. Sleep 42, zsz007 (2019).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang, X. et al. Associations between insomnia and cardiovascular diseases: a meta-review and meta-analysis of observational and mendelian randomization studies. J. Clin. Sleep Med. 20, 1975–1984 (2024).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Benz, F., Meneo, D., Baglioni, C. & Hertenstein, E. Insomnia symptoms as risk factor for somatic disorders: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. J. Sleep Res. 32, e13984 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hertenstein, E. et al. Insomnia as a predictor of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med. Rev. 43, 96–105 (2019).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dressle, R. J. & Riemann, D. Hyperarousal in insomnia disorder: current evidence and potential mechanisms. J. Sleep Res. 32, e13928 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chalet, F.-X. et al. Epidemiology and burden of chronic insomnia disorder in Europe: an analysis of the 2020 National Health and Wellness Survey. J. Med. Econ. 27, 1308–1319 (2024).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Morin, C. M. et al. Delphi consensus recommendations for the management of chronic insomnia in Canada. Sleep Med. 124, 598–605 (2024).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Riemann, D. et al. The European Insomnia Guideline: an update on the diagnosis and treatment of insomnia 2023. J. Sleep Res. 32, e14035 (2023). These guidelines by the European Sleep Research Society offer comprehensive recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of insomnia disorder.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ree, M., Junge, M. & Cunnington, D. Australasian Sleep Association position statement regarding the use of psychological/behavioral treatments in the management of insomnia in adults. Sleep Med. 36, S43–S47 (2017).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Qaseem, A. et al. Management of chronic insomnia disorder in adults: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann. Intern. Med. 165, 125–133 (2016).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Miller, C. B. et al. Time trends in the family physician management of insomnia: the Australian experience (2000–2015). J. Clin. Sleep Med. 13, 785–790 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Morin, C. M. et al. Prevalence of insomnia and use of sleep aids among adults in Canada. Sleep Med. 124, 338–345 (2024).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Morin, C. M. & Jarrin, D. C. Epidemiology of insomnia: prevalence, course, risk factors, and public health burden. Sleep Med. Clin. 17, 173–191 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Johnson, E. O., Roth, T., Schultz, L. & Breslauf, N. Epidemiology of DSM-IV insomnia in adolescence: lifetime prevalence, chronicity, and an emergent gender difference. Pediatrics 117, e247–e256 (2006).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang, J. et al. Emergence of sex differences in insomnia symptoms in adolescents: a large-scale school-based study. Sleep 39, 1563–1570 (2016).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Benjafield, A. V. et al. Estimation of the global prevalence and burden of insomnia: a systematic literature review-based analysis. Sleep Med. Rev. 82, 102121 (2025).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Morin, C. M. et al. Incidence, persistence, and remission rates of insomnia over 5 years. JAMA Netw. Open 3, e2018782 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yetish, G. et al. Natural sleep and its seasonal variations in three pre-industrial societies. Curr. Biol. 25, 2862–2868 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kronholm, E. et al. Prevalence of insomnia-related symptoms continues to increase in the Finnish working-age population. J. Sleep Res. 25, 454–457 (2016).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kronholm, E. et al. Trends in self-reported sleep duration and insomnia-related symptoms in Finnland from 1972 to 2005: a comparative review and re-analysis of Finnish population samples. Sleep 37, 1283–1293 (2014).

Google Scholar 

Pallesen, S., Sivertsen, B., Nordhus, I. H. & Bjorvatn, B. A 10-year trend of insomnia prevalence in the adult Norwegian population. Sleep Med. 15, 173–179 (2014).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baldi, E., Cerolini, S., Meneo, D., Baglioni, C. & Palagini, L. Insomnia disorder: gender issues over the lifespan. J. Sleep Res. 34, e70110 (2025).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Meneo, D. et al. A closer look at paediatric sleep: sleep health and sleep behavioural disorders in children and adolescents. J. Sleep Res. 34, e70078 (2025).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kocevska, D. et al. Sleep characteristics across the lifespan in 1.1 million people from the Netherlands, United Kingdom and United States: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nat. Hum. Behav. 5, 113–122 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Calhoun, S. L., Fernandez-Mendoza, J., Vgontzas, A. N., Liao, D. & Bixler, E. O. Prevalence of insomnia symptoms in a general population sample of young children and preadolescents: gender effects. Sleep Med. 15, 91–95 (2014).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang, J. et al. A community-based study of insomnia in Hong Kong Chinese children: prevalence, risk factors and familial aggregation. Sleep Med. 10, 1040–1046 (2009).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fricke-Oerkermann, L. et al. Prevalence and course of sleep problems in childhood. Sleep 30, 1371–1377 (2007).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hysing, M., Pallesen, S., Stormark, K. M., Lundervold, A. J. & Sivertsen, B. Sleep patterns and insomnia among adolescents: a population-based study. J. Sleep Res. 22, 549–556 (2013).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang, B. & Wing, Y. K. Sex differences in insomnia: a meta-analysis. Sleep 29, 85–93 (2006).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Meers, J. M. & Nowakowski, S. Sleep during pregnancy. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 24, 353–357 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Palagini, L. et al. Insomnia evaluation and treatment during peripartum: a joint position paper from the European Insomnia Network Task Force “Sleep and Women,” the Italian Marcè Society and international experts task force for perinatal mental health. Arch. Womens Ment. Health 25, 561–575 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

El Khoudary, S. R. et al. The menopause transition and women’s health at midlife: a progress report from the Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation. Menopause 26, 1213–1227 (2019).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blümel, J. E. et al. A multinational study of sleep disorders during female mid-life. Maturitas 72, 359–366 (2012).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kravitz, H. M. et al. Sleep difficulty in women at midlife: a community survey of sleep and the menopausal transition. Menopause 10, 19–28 (2003).

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Endomba, F. T. et al. Epidemiology of insomnia disorder in older persons according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. Geriatr. Med. 14, 1261–1272 (2023).