Ng M, Gakidou E, Lo J, et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of adult overweight and obesity, 1990–2021, with forecasts to 2050: a forecasting study for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet. 2025;405:813–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)00355-1.

Article  Google Scholar 

Kent L, McGirr M, Eastwood K-A. Global trends in prevalence of maternal overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of routinely collected data retrospective cohorts. IJPDS 2024;9. https://doi.org/10.23889/ijpds.v9i2.2401

He X-J, Dai R, Hu C-L. Maternal prepregnancy overweight and obesity and the risk of preeclampsia: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Obes Res Clin Pract. 2020;14:27–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orcp.2020.01.004.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abdi F, Alizadeh S, Roozbeh N, et al. Prepregnancy overweight and obesity and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Sci Rep. 2025;15:16846. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-02113-9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yen I-W, Lee C-N, Lin M-W, et al. Overweight and obesity are associated with clustering of metabolic risk factors in early pregnancy and the risk of GDM. PLoS ONE. 2019;14:e0225978. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225978.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mannino A, Sarapis K, Moschonis G. The Effect of Maternal Overweight and Obesity Pre-Pregnancy and During Childhood in the Development of Obesity in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review. Nutrients. 2022;14:5125. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235125.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kereliuk SM, Dolinsky VW. Recent Experimental Studies of Maternal Obesity, Diabetes during Pregnancy and the Developmental Origins of Cardiovascular Disease. IJMS. 2022;23:4467. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23084467.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Önnestam L, Vad OH, Andersson T, et al. Maternal body mass index in early pregnancy is associated with overweight and obesity in children up to 16 years of age. PLoS ONE. 2022;17:e0275542. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275542.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Godfrey KM, Reynolds RM, Prescott SL, et al. Influence of maternal obesity on the long-term health of offspring. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017;5:53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(16)30107-3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Volqvartz T, Andersen HHB, Pedersen LH, et al. Obesity in pregnancy—Long-term effects on offspring hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis and associations with placental cortisol metabolism: A systematic review. Eur J Neurosci. 2023;58:4393–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.16184.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kahr MK, Antony KM, DelBeccaro M, et al. Increasing maternal obesity is associated with alterations in both maternal and neonatal thyroid hormone levels. Clin Endocrinol. 2016;84:551–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/cen.12974.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Brix N, Ernst A, Lauridsen LLB, et al. Maternal pre-pregnancy obesity and timing of puberty in sons and daughters: a population-based cohort study. Int J Epidemiol. 2019;48:1684–94. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz125.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Eleftheriades A, Koulouraki S, Belegrinos A, et al. Maternal Obesity and Neurodevelopment of the Offspring. Nutrients. 2025;17:891. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17050891.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Krzeczkowski JE, Mortaji N, Van Lieshout RJ. Obesity during pregnancy and deficits in offspring neurobehavioral flexibility: the CONFINE Model. Biological Psychiatry 2025:S000632232501306X. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2025.06.032

Gkintoni E, Papachatzi E, Efthymiadou E, et al. Neurodevelopmental Pathways from Maternal Obesity to Offspring Outcomes: An Umbrella Review of Cognitive and Behavioral Consequences Across Development. Healthcare. 2025;13:2653. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13202653.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Barker DJP. The origins of the developmental origins theory. J Intern Med. 2007;261:412–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01809.x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Armitage JA, Poston L, Taylor PD. Developmental Origins of Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome: The Role of Maternal Obesity. In: Korbonits M, editor. Frontiers of Hormone Research. Basel: KARGER; 2008. pp. 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1159/000115355.

Chapter  Google Scholar 

Sakali A-K, Papagianni M, Bargiota A, et al. Environmental factors affecting pregnancy outcomes. Endocrine. 2023;80:459–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-023-03307-9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Montazeri P, Güil-Oumrait N, Marquez S, et al. Prenatal Exposure to Multiple Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Childhood BMI Trajectories in the INMA Cohort Study. Environ Health Perspect. 2023;131:107006. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11103.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Puche-Juarez M, Toledano JM, Moreno-Fernandez J, et al. The Role of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Gestation and Pregnancy Outcomes. Nutrients. 2023;15:4657. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15214657.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Conforti A, Mascia M, Cioffi G, et al. Air pollution and female fertility: a systematic review of literature. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2018;16:117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12958-018-0433-z.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sebastiani G, Andreu-Fernández V, Herranz Barbero A, et al. Eating Disorders During Gestation: Implications for Mother’s Health, Fetal Outcomes, and Epigenetic Changes. Front Pediatr. 2020;8:587. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2020.00587.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hedderson MM, Schuh HB, Knapp EA, et al. Prenatal Diet and Infant Growth From Birth to Age 24 Months. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7:e2445771. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.45771.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Monthé-Drèze C, Rifas-Shiman SL, Aris IM, et al. Maternal diet in pregnancy is associated with differences in child body mass index trajectories from birth to adolescence. Am J Clin Nutr. 2021;113:895–904. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa398.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Santana VO, Ramos AC, Cogo-Moreira H, et al. Sex-specific association between maternal childhood adversities and offspring’s weight gain in a Brazilian cohort. Sci Rep. 2025;15:2960. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-87078-5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yu Z, Han S, Zhu J, et al. Pre-Pregnancy Body Mass Index in Relation to Infant Birth Weight and Offspring Overweight/Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e61627. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0061627.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gaillard R. Maternal obesity during pregnancy and cardiovascular development and disease in the offspring. Eur J Epidemiol. 2015;30:1141–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-015-0085-7.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gaillard R, Felix JF, Duijts L, et al. Childhood consequences of maternal obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2014;93:1085–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.12506.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Meng R, Lv J, Yu C, et al. Prenatal famine exposure, adulthood obesity patterns and risk of type 2 diabetes. Int J Epidemiol. 2018;47:399–408. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyx228.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Franke K, Gaser C, Roseboom TJ, et al. Premature brain aging in human