Dantzer, R., O’Connor, J. C., Freund, G. G., Johnson, R. W. & Kelley, K. W. From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 46–56 (2008).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Metalnikov S., Chorine V. Rôle des réflexes conditionnels dans l’immunité. Ann. l’Institut Pasteur CLXXXII, 1640 (1926).

Schiller, M., Ben-Shaanan, T. L. & Rolls, A. Neuronal regulation of immunity: why, how and where? Nat. Rev. Immunol. 21, 20–36 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Poller, W. C. et al. Brain motor and fear circuits regulate leukocytes during acute stress. Nature 607, 578–584 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Croese, T., Castellani, G. & Schwartz, M. Immune cell compartmentalization for brain surveillance and protection. Nat. Immunol. 22, 1083–1092 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Medawar, P. B. Immunity to homologous grafted skin; the fate of skin homografts transplanted to the brain, to subcutaneous tissue, and to the anterior chamber of the eye. Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 29, 58–69 (1948).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kipnis, J., Cohen, H., Cardon, M., Ziv, Y. & Schwartz, M. T cell deficiency leads to cognitive dysfunction: implications for therapeutic vaccination for schizophrenia and other psychiatric conditions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 8180–8185 (2004).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ziv, Y. et al. Immune cells contribute to the maintenance of neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 268–275 (2006).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dumas, A. A., Borst, K. & Prinz, M. Current tools to interrogate microglial biology. Neuron 109, 2805–2819 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Marblestone, A. H. & Boyden, E. S. Designing tools for assumption-proof brain mapping. Neuron 83, 1239–1241 (2014).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Klein Wolterink, R. G. J., Wu, G. S., Chiu, I. M. & Veiga-Fernandes, H. Neuroimmune interactions in peripheral organs. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 45, 339–360 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Koren, T. et al. Insular cortex neurons encode and retrieve specific immune responses. Cell 184, 6211 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Prinz, M., Masuda, T., Wheeler, M. A. & Quintana, F. J. Microglia and central nervous system-associated macrophages-from origin to disease modulation. Annu Rev. Immunol. 39, 251–277 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ganea, D., Hooper, K. M. & Kong, W. The neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal peptide: direct effects on immune cells and involvement in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Acta Physiol. 213, 442–452 (2015).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Malin, S. G., Shavva, V. S., Tarnawski, L. & Olofsson, P. S. Functions of acetylcholine-producing lymphocytes in immunobiology. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 62, 115–121 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Choi, G. B. et al. The maternal interleukin-17a pathway in mice promotes autism-like phenotypes in offspring. Science 351, 933–939 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Coughlan, C. M. et al. Expression of multiple functional chemokine receptors and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in human neurons. Neuroscience 97, 591–600 (2000).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Stevens, B. et al. The classical complement cascade mediates CNS synapse elimination. Cell 131, 1164–1178 (2007).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huh, G. S. et al. Functional requirement for class I MHC in CNS development and plasticity. Science 290, 2155–2159 (2000).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Obata, Y. & Pachnis, V. The effect of microbiota and the immune system on the development and organization of the enteric nervous system. Gastroenterology 151, 836–844 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jacobson, A., Yang, D., Vella, M. & Chiu, I. M. The intestinal neuro-immune axis: crosstalk between neurons, immune cells, and microbes. Mucosal Immunol. 14, 555–565 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang, H., Foong, J. P. P., Harris, N. L. & Bornstein, J. C. Enteric neuroimmune interactions coordinate intestinal responses in health and disease. Mucosal Immunol. 15, 27–39 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schneider, C., O’Leary, C. E. & Locksley, R. M. Regulation of immune responses by tuft cells. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 19, 584–593 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kaelberer, M. M. et al. A gut-brain neural circuit for nutrient sensory transduction. Science 361, eaat5236 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yano, J. M. et al. Indigenous bacteria from the gut microbiota regulate host serotonin biosynthesis. Cell 161, 264–276 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Xu, Z. Z. et al. Inhibition of mechanical allodynia in neuropathic pain by TLR5-mediated A-fiber blockade. Nat. Med 21, 1326–1331 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gabanyi, I. et al. Bacterial sensing via neuronal Nod2 regulates appetite and body temperature. Science 376, eabj3986 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Orecchioni, M. et al. Olfactory receptor 2 in vascular macrophages drives atherosclerosis by NLRP3-dependent IL-1 production. Science 375, 214–221 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cain, M. D., Salimi, H., Diamond, M. S. & Klein, R. S. Mechanisms of pathogen invasion into the central nervous system. Neuron 103, 771–783 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Da Mesquita, S., Fu, Z. & Kipnis, J. The meningeal lymphatic system: a new player in neurophysiology. Neuron 100, 375–388 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sansonetti, P. J. & Medzhitov, R. Learning tolerance while fighting ignorance. Cell 138, 416–420 (2009).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nagpal, J. & Cryan, J. F. Microbiota-brain interactions: moving toward mechanisms in model organisms. Neuron 109, 3930–3953 (2021).

Article