Sveinbjornsdottir S (2016) The clinical symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurochem 139:318–324

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lew M (2007) Overview of Parkinson’s disease. Pharmacotherapy 27:155s–160s

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dorsey ER, Sherer T, Okun MS, Bloem BR (2018) The emerging evidence of the Parkinson pandemic. J Parkinsons Dis 8:S3–s8

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang J, Fan Y, Liang H, Zhang Y (2025) Global, regional and national temporal trends in Parkinson’s disease incidence, disability-adjusted life year rates in middle-aged and older adults: a cross-national inequality analysis and Bayesian age-period-cohort analysis based on the global burden of disease 2021. Neurol Sci 46:1647–1660

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Armstrong MJ, Okun MS (2020) Diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson disease: a review. JAMA 323:548–560

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hiseman JP, Fackrell R (2017) Caregiver burden and the nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Int Rev Neurobiol 133:479–497

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jankovic J (2008) Parkinson’s disease: clinical features and diagnosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 79:368–376

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rizzo G, Copetti M, Arcuti S, Martino D, Fontana A, Logroscino G (2016) Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of Parkinson disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology 86:566–576

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Becker G, Seufert J, Bogdahn U, Reichmann H, Reiners K (1995) Degeneration of substantia nigra in chronic Parkinson’s disease visualized by transcranial color-coded real-time sonography. Neurology 45:182–184

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walter U, Niehaus L, Probst T, Benecke R, Meyer BU, Dressler D (2003) Brain parenchyma sonography discriminates Parkinson’s disease and atypical Parkinsonian syndromes. Neurology 60:74–77

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hagenah JM, Hedrich K, Becker B, Pramstaller PP, Seidel G, Klein C (2006) Distinguishing early-onset PD from dopa-responsive dystonia with transcranial sonography. Neurology 66:1951–1952

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tsai CF, Wu RM, Huang YW, Chen LL, Yip PK, Jeng JS (2007) Transcranial color-coded sonography helps differentiation between idiopathic Parkinson’s disease and vascular Parkinsonism. J Neurol 254:501–507

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yilmaz R, Berg D (2018) Transcranial B-mode sonography in movement disorders. Int Rev Neurobiol 143:179–212

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walter U, Loewenbrück KF, Dodel R, Storch A, Trenkwalder C, Höglinger G (2024) Systematic review-based guideline “Parkinson’s disease” of the German Society of Neurology: diagnostic use of transcranial sonography. J Neurol 271:7387–7401

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Berardelli A, Wenning GK, Antonini A et al (2013) EFNS/MDS-ES/ENS [corrected] recommendations for the diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Neurol 20:16–34

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rashidi HH, Chen M (2023) Preface: artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning ML) and digital pathology integration are the next major chapter in our diagnostic pathology and laboratory medicine arena. Semin Diagn Pathol 40:69–70

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li C, Zhang XY, Wu YH et al (2024) Expert consensus on ethical requirements for artificial intelligence (AI) processing medical data. Sheng Li Xue Bao 76:937–942

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Handelman GS, Kok HK, Chandra RV, Razavi AH, Lee MJ, Asadi H (2018) eDoctor: machine learning and the future of medicine. J Intern Med 284:603–619

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McGonigal A, Tankisi H (2024) Artificial Intelligence (AI): Why does it matter for clinical neurophysiology?. Neurophysiol Clin 54:102993

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bartova P, Skoloudik D, Bar M et al (2008) Transcranial sonography in movement disorders. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 152:251–258

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huang YW, Jeng JS, Tsai CF, Chen LL, Wu RM (2007) Transcranial imaging of substantia nigra hyperechogenicity in a Taiwanese cohort of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 22:550–555

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walter U, Wittstock M, Benecke R, Dressler D (2002) Substantia nigra echogenicity is normal in non-extrapyramidal cerebral disorders but increased in Parkinson’s disease. J Neural Transm 109:191–196

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Behnke S, Berg D, Naumann M, Becker G (2005) Differentiation of Parkinson’s disease and atypical Parkinsonian syndromes by transcranial ultrasound. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76:423–425

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gaenslen A, Unmuth B, Godau J et al (2008) The specificity and sensitivity of transcranial ultrasound in the differential diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease: a prospective blinded study. Lancet Neurol 7:417–424

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bouwmans AE, Vlaar AM, Srulijes K, Mess WH, Weber WE (2010) Transcranial sonography for the discrimination of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease from the atypical Parkinsonian syndromes. Int Rev Neurobiol 90:121–146

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hagenah J, König IR, Sperner J et al (2010) Life-long increase of substantia nigra hyperechogenicity in transcranial sonography. Neuroimage 51:28–32

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hagenah J, Seidel G (2010) Sonography of the parenchyma in Parkinson’s disease. Nervenarzt 81:1189–1195

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walter U, Školoudík D (2014) Transcranial sonography (TCS) of brain parenchyma in movement disorders: quality standards, diagnostic applications and novel technologies. Ultraschall Med 35:322–331

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mei YL, Yang J, Wu ZR, Yang Y, Xu YM (2021) Transcranial sonography of the substantia nigra for the differential diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease and other movement disorders: a meta-analysis. Parkinsons Dis 2021:8891874

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bartels AL, Leenders KL (2009) Parkinson’s disease: the syndrome, the pathogenesis and pathophysiology. Cortex 45:915–921

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Berg D, Merz B, Reiners K, Naumann M, Becker G (2005) Five-year follow-up study of hyperechogenicity of the substantia nigra in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 20:383–385

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van de Loo S, Walter U, Behnke S et al (2010) Reproducibility and diagnostic accuracy of substantia nigra sonography for the diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 81:1087–1092

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tao A, Chen G, Deng Y, Xu R (2019) Accuracy of transcranial sonography of the substantia nigra for detection of Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ultrasound Med Biol 45:628–641

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Izawa MO, Miwa H, Kajimoto Y, Kondo T (2012) Combination of transcranial sonography, olfactory testing, and MIBG myocardial scintigraphy as a diagnostic indicator for Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Neurol 19:411–416

Article  CAS