Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ et al (1999) The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized aldactone evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med 341:709–717. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199909023411001

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zannad F, McMurray JJ, Krum H et al (2011) Eplerenone in patients with systolic heart failure and mild symptoms. N Engl J Med 364:11–21. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1009492

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pitt B, Remme W, Zannad F et al (2003) Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 348:1309–1321. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa030207

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Monzo L, Huttin O, Ferreira JP et al (2023) Role of aldosterone in mid- and long-term left ventricular remodelling after acute myocardial infarction: the REMI study. Eur J Heart Fail 25:1742–1752. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.2986

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Eschalier R, McMurray JJ, Swedberg K et al (2013) Safety and efficacy of eplerenone in patients at high risk for hyperkalemia and/or worsening renal function: analyses of the EMPHASIS-HF study subgroups (Eplerenone in Mild Patients Hospitalization And SurvIval Study in Heart Failure). J Am Coll Cardiol 62:1585–1593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2013.04.086

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vardeny O, Claggett B, Anand I et al (2014) Incidence, predictors, and outcomes related to hypo- and hyperkalemia in patients with severe heart failure treated with a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist. Circ Heart Fail 7:573–579. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.114.001104

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guidetti F, Lund LH, Benson L et al (2023) Safety of continuing mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist treatment in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction and severe kidney disease: data from Swedish Heart Failure Registry. Eur J Heart Fail 25:2164–2173. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.3049

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Monzo L, Ferreira JP, Abreu P et al (2020) Visit-to-visit blood pressure variation and outcomes in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: findings from the Eplerenone in Patients with Systolic Heart Failure and Mild Symptoms trial. J Hypertens 38:420–425. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000002275

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Monzo L, Bresso E, Dickstein K, Pitt B, Cleland JGF, Anker SD, Lam CSP, Mehra MR, van Veldhuisen DJ, Greenberg B, Zannad F, Girerd N (2024) Machine learning approach to identify phenotypes in patients with ischaemic heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Eur J Heart Fail. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.3547

Monzo L, Girerd N, Duarte K et al (2023) Time to clinical benefit of eplerenone among patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: a subgroups analysis from the EMPHASIS-HF trial. Eur J Heart Fail 25:1444–1449. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.2952

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ferreira JP, Verdonschot J, Wang P et al (2021) Proteomic and mechanistic analysis of spironolactone in patients at risk for HF. JACC Heart Fail 9:268–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2020.11.010

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Monzo L, Ferreira JP, Cleland JGF et al (2022) Dyskalemia in people at increased risk for heart failure: findings from the heart ‘OMics’ in AGEing (HOMAGE) trial. ESC Heart Fail 9:4352–4357. https://doi.org/10.1002/ehf2.14086

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Heidenreich PA, Bozkurt B, Aguilar D et al (2022) 2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA guideline for the management of heart failure: executive summary: a report of the american college of cardiology/american heart association joint committee on clinical practice guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 79:1757–1780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2021.12.011

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Authors/Task Force M, McDonagh TA, Metra M et al (2022) 2021 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: developed by the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). With the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur J Heart Fail 24:4-131. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.2333

Greene SJ, Butler J, Albert NM et al (2018) Medical Therapy for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: the CHAMP-HF Registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 72:351–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2018.04.070

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pierce JB, Ikeaba U, Peters AE et al (2023) Quality of care and outcomes among patients hospitalized for heart failure in rural vs urban us hospitals: the get with the guidelines-Heart Failure Registry. JAMA Cardiol 8:376–385. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2023.0241

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Juurlink DN, Mamdani MM, Lee DS et al (2004) Rates of hyperkalemia after publication of the Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study. N Engl J Med 351:543–551. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa040135

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Trevisan M, de Deco P, Xu H et al (2018) Incidence, predictors and clinical management of hyperkalaemia in new users of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. Eur J Heart Fail 20:1217–1226. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.1199

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rossignol P, Lainscak M, Crespo-Leiro MG et al (2020) Unravelling the interplay between hyperkalaemia, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone inhibitor use and clinical outcomes. Data from 9222 chronic heart failure patients of the ESC-HFA-EORP Heart Failure Long-Term Registry. Eur J Heart Fail 22:1378–1389. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.1793

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ferreira JP, Butler J, Rossignol P et al (2020) Abnormalities of potassium in heart failure: JACC state-of-the-art review. J Am Coll Cardiol 75:2836–2850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.04.021

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Harel Z, Harel S, Shah PS, Wald R, Perl J, Bell CM (2013) Gastrointestinal adverse events with sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) use: a systematic review. Am J Med 126(264):e269–e224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.08.016

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Rossignol P, Pitt B (2023) Sodium polystyrene is unsafe and should not be prescribed for the treatment of hyperkalaemia: primum non nocere! Clin Kidney J 16:1221–1225. https://doi.org/10.1093/ckj/sfad090

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zannad F, Ferreira JP, Pitt B (2019) Potassium binders for the prevention of hyperkalaemia in heart failure patients: implementation issues and future developments. Eur Heart J Suppl 21:A55–A60. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/suy034

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Weir MR, Bakris GL, Bushinsky DA et al (2015) Patiromer in patients with kidney disease and hyperkalemia receiving RAAS inhibitors. N Engl J Med 372:211–221. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1410853

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bakris GL, Pitt B, Weir MR et al (2015) Effect of patiromer on serum potassium level in patients with hyperkalemia and diabetic kidney disease: the AMETHYST-DN randomized clinical trial. JAMA 314:151–161. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.7446

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Agarwal R, Rossignol P, Romero A et al (2019) Patiromer versus placebo to enable spironolactone use in patients with resistant hypertension and chronic kidney disease (AMBER): a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 394:1540–1550. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32135-X

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kosiborod M, Rasmussen HS, Lavin P et al (2014) Effect of sodium zirconium cyclosilicate on potassium lowering for 28 days among outpatients with hyperkalemia: the HARMONIZE randomized clinical trial. JAMA 312:2223–2233. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.15688

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Packham DK, Rasmussen HS, Lavin PT et al (2015) Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate in hyperkalemia. N Engl J Med 372:222–231. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1411487

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kosiborod MN, Cherney DZI, Desai AS et al (2024) Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate for management of hyperkalemia during spironolactone optimization in patients with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2024.11.014

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central