Mothe AJ, Tator CH (2012) Advances in stem cell therapy for spinal cord injury. J Clin Investig 122(11):3824–3834

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cofano F, Boido M, Monticelli M, Zenga F, Ducati A, Vercelli A, Garbossa D (2019) Mesenchymal stem cells for spinal cord injury: current options, limitations, and future of cell therapy. Int J Mol Sci 20(11):2698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20112698

Khorasanizadeh M, Yousefifard M, Eskian M, Lu Y, Chalangari M, Harrop JS, Jazayeri SB, Seyedpour S et al (2019) Neurological recovery following traumatic spinal cord injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurge Spine 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3171/2018.10.SPINE18802

Katoh H, Yokota K, Fehlings MG (2019) Regeneration of spinal cord connectivity through stem cell transplantation and biomaterial scaffolds. Front Cell Neurosci 13(248). https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00248

Wang H, Liu X, Zhao Y et al (2016) Incidence and pattern of traumatic spinal fractures and associated spinal cord injury resulting from motor vehicle collisions in China over 11 years: an observational study. Medicine 95(43):e5220

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen J, Chen Z, Zhang K et al (2021) Epidemiological features of traumatic spinal cord injury in Guangdong Province, China. J Spinal Cord Med 44(2):276–281

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhou K, Nan W, Feng D et al (2017) Spatiotemporal expression of Ski after rat spinal cord injury. NeuroReport 28(3):149–157

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Burns AS, O’Connell C (2012) The challenge of spinal cord injury care in the developing world. J Spinal Cord Med 35(1):3–8

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Karsy M, Hawryluk G (2019) Modern medical management of spinal cord injury. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 19(9):65

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hutson TH, di Giovanni S (2019) The translational landscape in spinal cord injury: focus on neuroplasticity and regeneration. Nat Rev Neurol 15(12):732–745

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Anwar MA, AL Shehabi TS, Eid AH (2016) Inflammogenesis of Secondary Spinal Cord Injury. Front Cell Neurosci 10(98). https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00098

Lukovic D, Stojkovic M, Moreno-Manzano V et al (2015) Concise review: reactive astrocytes and stem cells in spinal cord injury: good guys or bad guys? Stem Cells 33(4):1036–1041

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim YH, Ha KY, Kim SI (2017) Spinal cord injury and related clinical trials. Clin Orthop Surg 9(1):1–9

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kwon BK, Tetzlaff W, Grauer JN et al (2004) Pathophysiology and pharmacologic treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Spine J : Off J North Am Spine Soc 4(4):451–464

Article  Google Scholar 

Rong Y, Liu W, Wang J et al (2019) Neural stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles attenuate apoptosis and neuroinflammation after traumatic spinal cord injury by activating autophagy. Cell Death Dis 10(5):340

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yu H, Guo P, Xie X et al (2017) Ferroptosis, a new form of cell death, and its relationships with tumourous diseases. J Cell Mol Med 21(4):648–657

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fink SL, Cookson BT (2005) Apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necrosis: mechanistic description of dead and dying eukaryotic cells. Infect Immun 73(4):1907–1916

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cabon L, Martinez-Torres AC, Susin SA (2013) Programmed cell death comes in many flavors] [J. Med Sci : M/S 29(12):1117–1124

Google Scholar 

Green DR (1998) Apoptotic pathways: the roads to ruin. Cell 94(6):695–698

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lu J, Ashwell KW, Waite P (2000) Advances in secondary spinal cord injury: role of apoptosis. Spine 25(14):1859–1866

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shi Z, Yuan S, Shi L et al (2021) Programmed cell death in spinal cord injury pathogenesis and therapy. Cell Prolif 54(3):e12992

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fan YD, Zhu ML, Geng D et al (2018) The study on pathological mechanism and solution method for spinal cord ischemia reperfusion injury. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 22(13):4063–4068

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Park CS, Lee JY, Choi HY, Ju BG, Youn I, Yune TY (2019) Protocatechuic acid improves functional recovery after spinal cord injury by attenuating blood-spinal cord barrier disruption and hemorrhage in rats. Neurochem Int 124:181–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2019.01.013

Bareyre FM, Schwab ME (2003) Inflammation, degeneration and regeneration in the injured spinal cord: insights from DNA microarrays. Trends Neurosci 26(10):555–563

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lin L, Lin H, Bai S, et al (2018) Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) improved functional recovery of spinal cord injury partly by promoting axonal regeneration. Neurochem Int, 115(80–4)

Garcia E, Aguilar-Cevallos J, Silva-Garcia R, Ibarra A (2016) Cytokine and growth factor activation in vivo and in vitro after spinal cord injury. Mediat Inflamm 2016:9476020. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/9476020

Jha RM, Kochanek PM, Simard JM (2019) Pathophysiology and treatment of cerebral edema in traumatic brain injury. Neuropharmacol 145(Pt B):230–246

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

von Leden RE, Yauger YJ, Khayrullina G et al (2017) Central nervous system injury and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase: oxidative stress and therapeutic targets. J Neurotrauma 34(4):755–764

Article  Google Scholar 

Toborek M, Malecki A, Garrido R et al (1999) Arachidonic acid-induced oxidative injury to cultured spinal cord neurons. J Neurochem 73(2):684–692

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Beattie MS, Farooqui AA, Bresnahan JC (2000) Review of current evidence for apoptosis after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 17(10):915–925

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rodemer W, Selzer ME (2019) Role of axon resealing in retrograde neuronal death and regeneration after spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 14(3):399–404

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yang L, Jones NR, Blumbergs PC et al (2005) Severity-dependent expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in traumatic spinal cord injury in the rat. J Clin Neurosci : Off J Neurosurg Soc Aust 12(3):276–284

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Donnelly DJ, Popovich PG (2008) Inflammation and its role in neuroprotection, axonal regeneration and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 209(2):378–388

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fan R, Zhang Y, Botchway BOA et al (2021) Resveratrol can attenuate astrocyte activation to treat spinal cord injury by inhibiting inflammatory responses. Mol Neurobiol 58(11):5799–5813

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kolb JP, Oguin TH, Oberst A et al (2017) Programmed cell death and inflammation: winter is coming. Trends Immunol 38(10):705–18

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Föller M, Huber SM, Lang F (2008) Erythrocyte programmed cell death. IUBMB Life 60(10):661–8

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Degterev A, Huang Z, Boyce M et al (2005) Chemical inhibitor of nonapoptotic cell death with therapeutic potential for ischemic brain injury. Nat Chem Biol 1(2):112–119

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zong WX, Ditsworth D, Bauer DE et al (2004) Alkylating DNA damage stimulates a regulated form of necrotic cell death. Genes Dev 18(11):1272–1282

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

VanlangenakkeR N, Vanden Berghe T, Vandenabeele P (2012) Many stimuli pull the necrotic trigger, an overview. Cell Death Differ 19(1):75–86

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang Y, Wang H, Tao Y, Zhang S, Wang J, Feng X (2014) Necroptosis inhibitor necrostatin-1 promotes cell protection and physiological function in traumatic spinal cord injury. Neuroscience 266:91–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.02.007

Liu M, Wu W, Li H et al (2015) Necroptosis, a novel type of programmed cell death, contributes to early neural cells damage after spinal cord injury in adult mice. J Spinal Cord Med 38(6):745–753

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nikoletopoulou V, Markaki M, Palikaras K et al (2013) Crosstalk between apoptosis, necrosis and autophagy. Biochem Biophys Acta 1833(12):3448–3459

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huang D, Zheng X, Wang ZA, Chen X, He WT, Zhang Y, Xu JG, Zhao H et al (2017) The MLKL channel in necroptosis is an octamer formed by tetramers in a dyadic process. Mol Cell Biol 37(5):e00497-16. https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.00497-16

Fink SL, Cookson BT (2006) Caspase-1-dependent pore formation during pyroptosis leads to osmotic lysis of infected host macrophages. Cell Microbiol 8(11):1812–1825

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vande Walle L, Lamkanfi M (2016) Pyroptosis. Curr Biol : CB 26(13):568–72

Article  Google Scholar 

Liu W, Chen Y, Meng J et al (2018) Ablation of caspase-1 protects against TBI-induced pyroptosis in vitro and in vivo. J Neuroinflammation 15(1):48

Article