Dasso NA (2019) How is exercise different from physical activity? A concept analysis. Nurs Forum 54(1):45–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/nuf.12296

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dietrich MO, Andrews ZB, Horvath TL (2008) Exercise-induced synaptogenesis in the hippocampus is dependent on UCP2-regulated mitochondrial adaptation. J Neurosci 28(42):10766–10771. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2744-08.2008

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bloor CM (2005) Angiogenesis during exercise and training. Angiogenesis 8(3):263–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10456-005-9013-x

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van Praag H et al (1999) Running enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96(23):13427–13431

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Seo DY et al (2019) Exercise and neuroinflammation in health and disease. Int Neurourol J 23(Suppl 2):S82-92. https://doi.org/10.5213/inj.1938214.107

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hötting K, Röder B (2013) Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37(9, Part B):2243–2257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.005

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Diederich K et al (2017) Effects of different exercise strategies and intensities on memory performance and neurogenesis. Front Behav Neurosci 11:47. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00047

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhou XA et al (2021) Neurogenic-dependent changes in hippocampal circuitry underlie the procognitive effect of exercise in aging mice. iScience 24(12):103450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2021.103450

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Okamoto M et al (2021) High-intensity intermittent training enhances spatial memory and hippocampal neurogenesis associated with BDNF signaling in rats. Cereb Cortex 31(9):4386–4397. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhab093

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Choi SH et al (2018) Combined adult neurogenesis and BDNF mimic exercise effects on cognition in an Alzheimer’s mouse model. Science 361(6406). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan8821

Ji J-F et al (2014) Forced running exercise attenuates hippocampal neurogenesis impairment and the neurocognitive deficits induced by whole-brain irradiation via the BDNF-mediated pathway. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 443(2):646–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.12.031

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Trejo JL, Llorens-Martin MV, Torres-Aleman I (2008) The effects of exercise on spatial learning and anxiety-like behavior are mediated by an IGF-I-dependent mechanism related to hippocampal neurogenesis. Mol Cell Neurosci 37(2):402–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcn.2007.10.016

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ding Q et al (2006) Insulin-like growth factor I interfaces with brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated synaptic plasticity to modulate aspects of exercise-induced cognitive function. Neuroscience 140(3):823–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.02.084

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Karakilic A et al (2021) Regular aerobic exercise increased VEGF levels in both soleus and gastrocnemius muscles correlated with hippocampal learning and VEGF levels. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 81(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.21307/ane-2021-001

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Koester-Hegmann C et al (2019) High-altitude cognitive impairment is prevented by enriched environment including exercise via VEGF signaling. Front Cell Neurosci 12:532. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2018.00532

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen Z et al (2019) Effects of treadmill exercise on motor and cognitive function recovery of MCAO mice through the caveolin-1/VEGF signaling pathway in ischemic penumbra. Neurochem Res 44(4):930–946. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-019-02728-1

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

So JH et al (2017) Intense exercise promotes adult hippocampal neurogenesis but not spatial discrimination. Front Cell Neurosci 11:13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2017.00013

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blackmore DG et al (2021) An exercise “sweet spot” reverses cognitive deficits of aging by growth-hormone-induced neurogenesis. iScience 24(11):103275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2021.103275

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Speisman RB et al (2013) Daily exercise improves memory, stimulates hippocampal neurogenesis and modulates immune and neuroimmune cytokines in aging rats. Brain Behav Immun 28:25–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.09.013

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mela V et al (2020) Exercise-induced re-programming of age-related metabolic changes in microglia is accompanied by a reduction in senescent cells. Brain Behav Immun 87:413–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.01.012

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Horowitz AM et al (2020) Blood factors transfer beneficial effects of exercise on neurogenesis and cognition to the aged brain. Science 369(6500):167–173. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw2622

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang X et al (2019) Treadmill exercise decreases Aβ deposition and counteracts cognitive decline in APP/PS1 mice, possibly via hippocampal microglia modifications. Front Aging Neurosci 11:78. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2019.00078

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kim D, Cho J, Kang H (2019) Protective effect of exercise training against the progression of Alzheimer’s disease in 3xTg-AD mice. Behav Brain Res 374:112105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112105

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu Y et al (2020) Short-term resistance exercise inhibits neuroinflammation and attenuates neuropathological changes in 3xTg Alzheimer’s disease mice. J Neuroinflammation 17(1):4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-019-1653-7

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nichol KE et al (2008) Exercise alters the immune profile in Tg2576 Alzheimer mice toward a response coincident with improved cognitive performance and decreased amyloid. J Neuroinflammation 5:13–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-5-13

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Parachikova A, Nichol KE, Cotman CW (2008) Short-term exercise in aged Tg2576 mice alters neuroinflammation and improves cognition. Neurobiol Dis 30(1):121–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2007.12.008

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Griesbach GS et al (2004) Voluntary exercise following traumatic brain injury: brain-derived neurotrophic factor upregulation and recovery of function. Neuroscience 125(1):129–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.01.030

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Piao C-S et al (2013) Late exercise reduces neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction after traumatic brain injury. Neurobiol Dis 54:252–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2012.12.017

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhao Z et al (2015) Voluntary exercise preconditioning activates multiple antiapoptotic mechanisms and improves neurological recovery after experimental traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 32(17):1347–1360. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3739

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kang EB et al (2016) Neuroprotective effects of endurance exercise against high-fat diet-induced hippocampal neuroinflammation. J Neuroendocrinol 28(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/jne.12385

Graham LC et al (2019) Exercise prevents obesity-induced cognitive decline and white matter damage in mice. Neurobiol Aging 80:154–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.03.018

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Augusto-Oliveira M et al (2019) Adult hippocampal neurogenesis in different taxonomic groups: possible functional similarities and striking controversies. Cells 8(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8020125

Augusto-Oliveira M et al (2019) Adult hippocampal neurogenesis in different taxonomic groups: possible functional similarities and striking controversies. Cells 8(2):125

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kempermann G, Kuhn HG, Gage FH (1997) More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment. Nature 386(6624):493–495. https://doi.org/10.1038/386493a0

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van Praag H, Kempermann G, Gage FH (1999) Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus. Nat Neurosci 2(3):266–270. https://doi.org/10.1038/6368

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kobilo T et al (2011) Running is the neurogenic and neurotrophic stimulus in environmental enrichment. Learn Mem 18(9):605–609. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.2283011

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Diederich K et al (2017) Effects of different exercise strategies and intensities on memory performance and neurogenesis. Front Behav Neurosci 11(47). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00047

Vivar C, Peterson BD, van Praag H (2016) Running rewires the neuronal network of adult-born dentate granule cells. Neuroimage 131:29–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.11.031

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sah N et al (2017) Running reorganizes the circuitry of one-week-old adult-born hippocampal neurons. Sci Rep 7(1):10903. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11268-z

Article