Copeland, B. The Manchester computer: a revised history part 2: the Baby computer. IEEE Ann. Hist. Comput. 33, 22–37 (2011).

Article  Google Scholar 

Williams, R. S. What’s next? [The end of Moore’s law]. Comput. Sci. Eng. 19, 7–13 (2017).

Article  Google Scholar 

Yi, W. et al. Biological plausibility and stochasticity in scalable VO2 active memristor neurons. Nat. Commun. 9, 4661 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Roy, K., Jaiswal, A. & Panda, P. Towards spike-based machine intelligence with neuromorphic computing. Nature 575, 607–617 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kumar, S., Williams, R. S. & Wang, Z. Third-order nanocircuit elements for neuromorphic engineering. Nature 585, 518–523 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Singh, A. et al. The design of analogue in-memory computing tiles. Nat. Electron. 8, 1156–1169 (2025).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ielmini, D. & Wong, H.-S. P. In-memory computing with resistive switching devices. Nat. Electron. 1, 333–343 (2018).

Article  Google Scholar 

Momeni, A. et al. Training of physical neural networks. Nature 645, 53–61 (2025).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aguirre, F. et al. Hardware implementation of memristor-based artificial neural networks. Nat. Commun. 15, 1974 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang, W. et al. Edge learning using a fully integrated neuro-inspired memristor chip. Science 381, 1205–1211 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Goswami, S. et al. Decision trees within a molecular memristor. Nature 597, 51–56 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen, S., Zhang, T., Tappertzhofen, S., Yang, Y. & Valov, I. Electrochemical-memristor-based artificial neurons and synapses—fundamentals, applications, and challenges. Adv. Mater. 35, 2301924 (2023).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Chen, S. et al. Electrochemical ohmic memristors for continual learning. Nat. Commun. 16, 2348 (2025).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gaur, P. et al. Molecularly engineered memristors for reconfigurable neuromorphic functionalities. Adv. Mater. 38, e09143 (2026).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar