Sairenji T, Collins KL, Evans DV. An update on inflammatory bowel disease. Prim Care Clin Office Pract. 2017;44(4):673–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pop.2017.07.010.

Article  Google Scholar 

Kaplan GG, Ng SC. Understanding and preventing the global increase of inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology. 2017;152(2):313-21.e2. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2016.10.020.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hracs L, Windsor JW, Gorospe J, et al. Global evolution of inflammatory bowel disease across epidemiologic stages. Nature. 2025;642(8067):458–66. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08940-0.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cai Z, Wang S, Li J. Treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: a comprehensive review. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:765474. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.765474.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cazzato G, Colagrande A, Andriola V, et al. Histological hallmarks of mucosal healing in inflammatory bowel diseases in the era of monoclonal antibodies therapy: new insights and perspectives. Diagnostics. 2021;11(9):1570. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics11091570.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gordon H, Minozzi S, Kopylov U, et al. ECCO guidelines on therapeutics in Crohn’s disease: medical treatment. J Crohns Colitis. 2024;18(10):1531–55. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjae091.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mao EJ, Hazlewood GS, Kaplan GG, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: comparative efficacy of immunosuppressants and biologics for reducing hospitalisation and surgery in Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2017;45(1):3–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.13847.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

LeBlanc K, Mosli MH, Parker CE, et al. The impact of biological interventions for ulcerative colitis on health-related quality of life. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;2015(9):008655. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008655.pub3.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rubin DT, Ananthakrishnan AN, Siegel CA, et al. ACG Clinical guideline update: ulcerative colitis in adults. Am J Gastroenterol. 2025;120(6):1187–224. https://doi.org/10.14309/ajg.0000000000003463.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lichtenstein GR, Loftus EV, Isaacs KL, et al. ACG clinical guideline: management of Crohn’s disease in adults. Am J Gastroenterol. 2018;113(4):481–517. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2018.27.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cramer JA, Roy A, Burrell A, et al. Medication compliance and persistence: terminology and definitions. Value Health. 2008;11(1):44–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4733.2007.00213.x.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hepatology TLG. The economic burden of inflammatory bowel disease. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;8(5):391. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2468-1253(23)00075-4.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Argollo M, Kotze PG, Kakkadasam P, et al. Optimizing biologic therapy in IBD: how essential is therapeutic drug monitoring? Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;17(11):702–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-020-0352-2.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gordon H, Biancone L, Fiorino G, et al. ECCO guidelines on inflammatory bowel disease and malignancies. J Crohns Colitis. 2023;17(6):827–54. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjac187.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shah NB, Haydek J, Slaughter J, et al. Risk factors for medication nonadherence to self-injectable biologic therapy in adult patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2020;26(2):314–20. https://doi.org/10.1093/ibd/izz253.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Khan S, Rupniewska E, Neighbors M, et al. Real-world evidence on adherence, persistence, switching and dose escalation with biologics in adult inflammatory bowel disease in the United States: a systematic review. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2019;44(4):495–507. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpt.12830.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nieto JC, Arajol C, Carmona L, et al. Adherence to subcutaneous biological therapies in patients with inflammatory rheumatic diseases and inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review. Immunotherapy. 2021;13(5):433–58. https://doi.org/10.2217/imt-2021-0011.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lopez A, Billioud V, Peyrin-Biroulet C, et al. Adherence to anti-TNF therapy in inflammatory bowel diseases: a systematic review. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2013;19(7):1528–33. https://doi.org/10.1097/MIB.0b013e31828132cb.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. https://www.ahrq.gov/. Accessed 30 Aug 2025.

Stang A. Critical evaluation of the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for the assessment of the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses. Eur J Epidemiol. 2010;25(9):603–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-010-9491-z.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Borenstein M. Research note: in a meta-analysis, the I2 index does not tell us how much the effect size varies across studies. J Physiother. 2020;66(2):135–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphys.2020.02.011.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

The World Bank. The World by Income and Region 2023. https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/the-world-by-income-and-region.html. Accessed 30 Aug 2025.

Brown MT, Bussell JK. Medication adherence: WHO cares? Mayo Clin Proc. 2011;86(4):304–14. https://doi.org/10.4065/mcp.2010.0575.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Andrade SE, Kahler KH, Frech F, et al. Methods for evaluation of medication adherence and persistence using automated databases. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2006;15(8):565–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.1230.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, et al. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ. 1997;315(7109):629–34. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

World Health Organization. Adherence to long-term therapies: evidence for action. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/42682. Accessed 30 Aug 2025.

San EH, Egberts A, van Dijck-van Boetzelaer CWT, et al. High refill-adherence to adalimumab is associated with low disease activity in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2024;80(7):1089–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-024-03676-8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lauton PM, Pereira FS, Oliveira LB, et al. Adherence to infliximab treatment in patients with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases from a referral center in Brazil: a cohort study. BMC Gastroenterol. 2024;24(1):384. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12876-024-03455-w.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li S, Ma Y, Sun H, et al. The impact of medication belief on adherence to infliximab in patients with Crohn’s disease. Front Pharmacol. 2023;14:1185026. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2023.1185026.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

George LA, Causey E, Shah NB, et al. Multicenter study of nonadherence to self-injectable biologic therapy in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: risk factors and outcomes. Gastro Hep Adv. 2023;2(4):601–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gastha.2023.01.016.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ramos L, Ramos-Rodríguez J, Barreda RDL, et al. Adherence to subcutaneous biologic treatment for inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterología y Hepatología (English Edition). 2022;45(5):335–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gastre.2021.04.010.

Article  Google Scholar 

Long MD, Cohen RD, Smith TW, et al. Retrospective database analysis: dose escalation and adherence in patients initiating biologics for ulcerative colitis. Dig Dis. 2022;40(5):553–64. https://doi.org/10.1159/000521299.