Emmerich SD, Fryar CD, Stierman B, Ogden CL. Obesity and severe obesity prevalence in adults: United States, August 2021–August 2023. NCHS Data Brief, no 508. Hyattsville: National Center for Health Statistics; 2024. https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc/159281.

World Health Organization. Obesity [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023 [cited 2025 June 1]. https://www.who.int/health-topics/obesity.

Kaplan GG. The global burden of IBD: from 2015 to 2025. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2015;12:720–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2015.150.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Singh S, Dulai PS, Zarrinpar A, Ramamoorthy S, Sandborn WJ. Obesity in IBD: epidemiology, pathogenesis, disease course and treatment outcomes. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;14:110–21. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2016.181.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wozniak SE, Gee LL, Wachtel MS, Frezza EE. Adipose tissue: the new endocrine organ? A review article Dig Dis Sci. 2009;54:1847–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-008-0585-3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fink C, Karagiannides I, Bakirtzi K, Pothoulakis C. Adipose tissue and inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2012;18:1550–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/ibd.22893.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Moreno-Navarrete JM, Sabater M, Ortega F, Ricart W, Fernández-Real JM. Circulating zonulin, a marker of intestinal permeability, is increased in association with obesity-associated insulin resistance. PLoS One. 2012;7:e37160. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037160.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jensen CB, Ängquist LH, Mendall MA, Sørensen TIA, Baker JL, Jess T. Childhood body mass index and risk of inflammatory bowel disease in adulthood: a population-based cohort study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2018;113:694–701. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41395-018-0031-x.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery. Estimate of bariatric surgery numbers, 2011–2022 [Internet]. Gainesville (FL): ASMBS; 2024 [cited 2025 June 1]. https://asmbs.org/resources/estimate-of-bariatric-surgery-numbers/. Accessed 31 January 2025.

American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery. Metabolic and bariatric surgery [Internet]. Gainesville (FL): ASMBS; 2023 [cited 2025 June 1]. https://asmbs.org/resources/metabolic-and-bariatric-surgery/.

Biter LU, ’t Hart JW, Noordman BJ, et al. Long-term effect of sleeve gastrectomy vs Roux-en-Y gastric bypass in people living with severe obesity: a phase III multicentre randomised controlled trial (SleeveBypass). Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2024;38:100836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2024.100836.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lupoli R, Lembo E, Saldalamacchia G, Avola CK, Angrisani L, Capaldo B. Bariatric surgery and long-term nutritional issues. World J Diabetes. 2017;8:464–74. https://doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v8.i11.464.

Elangovan A, Shah R, Ali SMJ, Katz J, Cooper GS. High burden of obesity and low rates of weight loss pharmacotherapy in inflammatory bowel disease: 10-year trend. Crohns Colitis 360. 2023;5:otad007. https://doi.org/10.1093/crocol/otad007.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wilding JPH, Batterham RL, Calanna S, et al. STEP 1 Study Group. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity. N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989–1002. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2032183.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wadden TA, Bailey TS, Billings LK, et al. STEP 3 Investigators. Effect of subcutaneous semaglutide vs placebo as an adjunct to intensive behavioral therapy on body weight in adults with overweight or obesity: The STEP 3 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;325:1403–13. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.1831.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Desai A, Khataniar H, Hashash JG, Farraye FA, Regueiro M, Kochhar GS. Effectiveness and safety of semaglutide for weight loss in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and obesity. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2025;31:696–705. https://doi.org/10.1093/ibd/izae090.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lin F, Yu B, Ling B, et al. Weight loss efficiency and safety of tirzepatide: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2023;18:e0285197. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285197.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sinha R, Papamargaritis D, Sargeant JA, Davies MJ. Efficacy and safety of tirzepatide in type 2 diabetes and obesity management. J Obes Metab Syndr. 2023;32:25–45. https://doi.org/10.7570/jomes22067.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jastreboff AM, Aronne LJ, Ahmad NN, et al. SURMOUNT-1 Investigators. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity. N Engl J Med. 2022;387:205–16. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2206038.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jenkins M, Koenigswinter JH, Fielding C, Vienna GP, Kurian M. Effectiveness and durability of common weight-loss methods. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2024;20 6 Suppl:S98–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soard.2024.04.310.

Al-Sabah S, Al-Khairi I, Jamal M, et al. Effect of dual glgucagon-like peptide 1/glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor agonist (tirzepatide) versus bariatric surgery on weight loss and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Med Princ Pract. 2024;33:478–90. https://doi.org/10.1159/000540534.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Braga Neto MB, Gregory MH, Ramos GP, et al. Impact of bariatric surgery on the long-term disease course of inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2020;26:1089–97. https://doi.org/10.1093/ibd/izz236.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Desai A, Hashash JG, Baker G, Farraye FA, Waghray N, Kochhar GS. Effect of bariatric surgery on disease outcomes in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A US-based propensity matched cohort study. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2024;58:447–53. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCG.0000000000001879.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Qin W, Yang J, Ni Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of once-weekly tirzepatide for weight management compared to placebo: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis including the latest SURMOUNT-2 trial. Endocrine. 2024;86:70–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-024-03896-z.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hutfless S, Jasper RA, Tilak A, et al. A systematic review of Crohn’s disease case definitions in administrative or claims databases. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2023;29:705–15. https://doi.org/10.1093/ibd/izac131.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kochhar GS, Khataniar H, Hashash JG, et al. Comparative effectiveness of ozanimod and vedolizumab as first-line advanced therapies in ulcerative colitis: A propensity-matched cohort analysis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2024;30:izae251. https://doi.org/10.1093/ibd/izae251.

Article  Google Scholar 

Kochhar GS, Khataniar H, Jairath V, Farraye FA, Desai A. Comparative effectiveness of upadacitinib and tofacitinib in ulcerative colitis: A US propensity-matched cohort study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2024;119:2471–9. https://doi.org/10.14309/ajg.0000000000002947.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baggio LL, Drucker DJ. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor co-agonists for treating metabolic disease. Mol Metab. 2021;46:101090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2020.101090.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gault VA, Kerr BD, Harriott P, Flatt PR. Administration of an acylated GLP-1 and GIP preparation provides added beneficial glucose-lowering and insulinotropic actions over single incretins in mice with Type 2 diabetes and obesity. Clin Sci (Lond). 2011;121:107–17. https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20110006.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Frías JP, Davies MJ, Rosenstock J, et al. SURPASS-2 Investigators. Tirzepatide versus semaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:503–15. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2107519.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Azuri J, Hammerman A, Aboalhasan E, Sluckis B, Arbel R. Tirzepatide versus semaglutide for weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A value for money analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2023;25:961–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.14940.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

O’Brien PE, Hindle A, Brennan L, et al. Long-term outcomes after bariatric surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis of weight loss at 10 or more years for all bariatric procedures and a single-centre review of 20-year outcomes after adjustable gastric banding. Obes Surg. 2019;29:3–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695-018-3525-0.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Puzziferri N, Roshek TB 3rd, Mayo HG, Gallagher R, Belle SH, Livingston EH. Long-term follow-up after bariatric surgery: a systematic review. JAMA. 2014;312:934–42. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.10706.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central