How are rituals linked to native trees?

The links between rituals and native trees in the Guji society emanate from the symbolic meanings created by the society and attached to the trees for the diverse socio-cultural functions. Rituals and some native trees share an inseparable bond in the society, where trees are not merely ecological entities but also sacred symbols embedded in cultural practices. This connection is deeply rooted in the society’s cosmology, belief systems, and the Gadaa socio-political structure. The underpinning thought from which the links between rituals and native trees originate is a belief system that takes trees as sacred gifts of God in society that people are expected to carefully make use of and preserve as vesture of land. On the other hand, there is a widely held belief that metaphorically states that trees are born, grow up, get mature, get ill, and die like humans do. As a result, native trees are culturally defined physical features, playing the irreplaceable role in ritual practices of the Gadaa system. These beliefs associate the nature of mankind with the life cycle of the trees through symbolic expressions.

The elderly informants discussed that the links between rituals and native trees that have been symbolically expressed are formed from these belief systems that advocate mutuality of trees and local belief systems. This mutuality is a fundamental base for the links between rituals and native trees in the study area. The next subsections of this article discuss data on how rituals—such as supplication, libation, sacrifice, slaughtering, and ancestral commemoration—are specifically linked to native trees, including in the study area, and the link forms eco-cultural synergy and underpins conservation of those trees. Specifically, the process of selecting native trees for ritual purposes and the process of ordaining them depend on the size, physical nature, roots, and leaves of the native trees. The following discussions provided the empirical information on how rituals are linked to some natives and how the links in turn form eco-cultural synergy in the Guji society, taking some cases from the study area.

Supplication, libation and the native tree

The Guji society is endowed with a rich of cultural practices that reflect its intricate belief systems, cosmology, and indigenous knowledge. Among these practices, supplication and libation hold a particularly significant place, as they maintain an inseparable connection between native trees and the Gadaa system. The supplication and libation, locally known Daadimannaa and Dhibaayyuu, respectively, are socio-spiritual practices that are conducted under trees by groups of Gadaa system councils in society. The genesis of supplication and libation in the Gadaa system stems from the belief that God, as the creator of all living and nonliving things, including the earth and sky, deserves praises and thanks for sustaining the universe and bestowing blessings upon humanity without expectation of reciprocity. Thus, thanks and prayers are offered through supplication and libation at sacred natural sites, reflecting deep respect and adoration. Supplication is a central existential and conventional practice in Guji society, typically performed in various spaces: homes, sacred shrines, routes to shrines, rivers, and formal social assemblies for meetings, celebrations, rituals, and cultural events. This study, however, focuses on the interconnection between rituals and native trees, excluding supplications and libations performed at home and in social gatherings.

The supplication and libation at the Daraartu sacred landscape near Adoolaa Woyyuu town are conducted at two sites under native trees: the first under the Euphorbia candelabrum var. bilocularis (Hadaammaa) and the second under the Ficus vasta Forssk (Qilxaa). Every eight years, after assuming Gadaa leadership at Me'ee Bokko, the Gadaa council members of Uraagaa and Maattii phratries of Guji society journey to Daraartu to perform libation and supplication under the Euphorbia candelabrum var. bilocularis, pouring fresh milk, coffee beans, barley, and honey beneath it. The elderly informants explained, ‘Hadaammaafi Qilxaan muka aananiiti, Qilxaan ammoo hidda dheerata. Kanaafuu kaayoo isaanii jaalannee jila tana isaan jalatti godhanne.’ This translates to: ‘Euphorbia candelabrum var. bilocularis and Ficus vasta Forssk are trees that produce white sap, with Ficus vasta Forssk having longer roots compared to other local trees. As a result, these trees were chosen due to the good omens culturally associated with the trees.’ These omens symbolize prosperity, healthy reproduction, productivity, and long-life expectancy that Guji society usually aspires to and envisages. This connection between trees and omen reflects the symbolic meanings and cultural significance attached to these native trees, indicating the eco-cultural synergy in Guji society.

This ritual is usually performed by elders in the Gadaa system following the Gadaa power transition, as new Gadaa leaders visit sacred shrines to thank and supplicate God, seeking His favor and assistance for their tenure. During the libation under the Hadaammaa, they recite:

Hadaammaa, a tree of milky sap, I perform libation under you. As my grandfather and father did, I make this offering to God. Oh God, give your peace to our people and livestock. Bless my family, young and old. Bring peace and prosperity to our people and livestock. I have reached the age of libation and performed it. Oh God, let my son also reach this age and perform the same supplication here” (Interview with Waaqo Dhugo, February 2024, at Adoolaa Reedde).

The libation and supplication primarily seek to propitiate God, entreating Him for the fertility, well-being, and prosperity of people and livestock. This reflects the deep bond between the Guji people and their livestock, which is both a livelihood and a vital social asset. During these rituals, Gadaa councils bless people, land, livestock, and the environment while warding off inauspicious omens. Unlike mainstream religions, the Gadaa system does not have specific sacred days or dedicated buildings for worship, with the exception of sacred natural sites, which serve a similar purpose to the churches of Christianity or the mosques of Islam. The Hadaammaa tree is chosen among native trees due to its symbolic significance in local belief systems. It was selected by ancestors for its evergreen nature and milky sap, symbolizing the abundance of cow milk and the prosperity of the people, illustrating the concept of eco-cultural synergy. One of the key informants stated, ‘Hadaammaan muka jilaaati, nami isa mure aadaa teenna mure,’ which translates to ‘Euphorbia candelabrum var. bilocularis is a ritual tree; anyone who cuts it down is someone who violently disregards our culture.’ During my field observations and transect walks with informants, I noted the high density of this tree in Daraartu village, located in the Adoolaa Reedde district.

On the other hand, the Gadaa council members of the Hookkuu phratry perform libation and supplication in the Daraartu sacred landscape, but under the Ficus vasta Forssk (Qilxaa) tree for the same purpose. Informants explained that while the Gadaa councils of the Uraagaa and Maattii phratries performed this ritual under the Hadaammaa during their journey and sojourn across ritual sites, the Hookkuu chose the Qilxaa tree. This choice is rooted in the symbolic meanings locally attached to specific trees and the cultural tradition of tree ordination passed down through generations. However, both trees have similar cultural importance and ritual function in the Guji society. The Hookkuu phratry Gadaa councils recite libation and supplication under the Qilxaa tree in the Daraartu sacred landscape as follows:

Oh God, who sprouted this tree here, grant me your peace. Protect me from accidental harm, loss of sight, and evil traps. Make me an impeccable Guji, visible like the peak of the greatest hill. Make me Hookkuu, the epitome of gracefulness. Shield me from sudden death and loss. Make me Maattii, and grant peace to my family and relatives (Maayaa maatii nan nageessi). Make me Uraagaa, who overcomes every challenge and impediment. Oh God, I have reached the age of libation and performed it here. Help my son reach this age and perform libation too (FGD held at Daraartu, March 2024).

The Qilxaa tree, with its thick milky sap, long roots, and evergreen leaves, provides shade for the local community and livestock, especially during the dry season. Its white sap symbolizes abundant livestock milk, while its size and shade represent fertility and prosperity. The informants emphasized that cutting this tree is strictly forbidden, as it is believed that anyone who does so will suffer a shortened lifespan. This practice supports conservation efforts by enforcing restrictions and fostering a protective belief system around these trees in the area. Beyond its role in rituals, the tree’s natural attributes and the metaphorical meanings attached to it highlight the deep connection between native trees and these cultural practices, exemplifying the concept of eco-cultural synergy.

Sacrificial ritual and tree

The sacrificial ritual, an indigenous practice of the Guji society, is performed beneath native trees to offer sacrifices to God, seeking to avert inauspicious omens and secure blessings. Known as Biluu gubuu, this ritual reflects the society’s belief in a monotheistic, omnipotent, omnipresent, and omniscient God as the source of peace, stability, and fertility (in-depth interview with Moona Godana, April 2024 at Adoolaa Reedde). In the large territory of Guji that extended from Barguddaa to Diida Guddaa and beyond, this ritual is conducted exclusively by the Abbaa Gadaa of three phratries and their councilors at the Biluu sacred site near Adoolaa Woyyuu town, in Adoolaa Reedde district. The ritual occurs once every eight years when a new Gadaa party assumes leadership and begins its journey across sacred shrines. Abbaa Gadaa and the councilors perform the ritual by slaughtering two cows under the Hurbuu tree (Vachellia horrida subsp. Benadirensis), which is also known as Acacia horrida) at the Biluu site. After the slaughtering is over, the meat is sliced, roasted on a flaming fire without a pan with a method called Babaa or Woxalaa, and consumed by participants according to seniority, starting with Abbaa Gadaa. Due to restrictive traditions, only authorized senior councilors attend the night ceremony, ensuring focus and solemnity. Unauthorized members and other attendants are excluded, as the ritual is reserved for those permitted to offer sacrifices under the Hurbuu tree. The purpose of this ritual is to propitiate God through sacrifices and thanksgiving, requiring discipline and caution. After consuming the meat, the Abbaa Gadaa and councilors burn the remaining pieces—bones, horns, claws, and skin—under the Hurbuu tree, offering the aroma and smoke as sacrifices. As a result of its ritual values, this tree is protected and considered as part of local cultural practices that showcases eco-cultural synergy. Culturally embedded restrictive traditions and belief systems that protect ritual trees have played a significant role in the protection of this tree. One of the anecdotes shared by participants in FGD 2 at the Biluu area was: ‘Nami wayii kanaan dura muka woyyuu kana aggaamee waan tureef, Waaqi itti mufatee isaa bokkeya muka jalatti qophatu mandiisuun itti buutee ijjeette.’ This translates to, a man who had previously cut down this sacred tree was struck by thunder and died while sheltering from the rain under a tree, as God’s wrath fell upon him for cutting the sacred tree. This shows how local belief systems protect this tree from anthropogenic threats, which also underpins conservation practices. The Hurbuu tree, chosen for its symbolic significance by Guji ancestors, remains a vital natural site for this ritual, reaffirming its eco-cultural synergy. Today, it is regarded as an indispensable location where sacrifices are offered to God every eight years, perpetuating the Guji society’s spiritual and cultural heritage.

Slaughtering ritual and native trees

Similar to sacrificial ritual, the slaughtering ceremony is performed by Gadaa councilors in the Biluu Sacred Land in Adoolaa Reedde district. This ritual takes place after the power transition ceremony, as the Gadaa party that has assumed power begins its journey across sacred shrines to fulfill all obligatory ritual activities. The Biluu sacred site, located near Adoolaa Woyyuu town in the Adoolaa Reedde district, is home to sacred trees including the sacred Afrocarpus gracilior, where the slaughtering ritual is conducted. Locally known as Birbissa, this giant evergreen tree holds immense cultural significance. The primary purpose of this ritual is not merely to propitiate God through offerings and sacrifices but to invoke divine blessings for humankind and livestock. Specifically, the slaughtering ritual under the Afrocarpus gracilior in Biluu is intended to seek God’s blessings for the people, land, and livestock, rather than for appeasement. This ritual is performed by the Abbaa Gadaa of the Uraaga, Maattii, and Hookkuu phratries every eight years, following the Gadaa power transition ceremony in the Biluu sacred landscape. Due to its cultural importance and dual nature, the Birbissa tree is preserved and set apart from other trees by the local people, considering it sacred. The Gadaa leaders emphasized the sacredness of the Afrocarpus gracilior, stating, ‘Birbissi kun galma Waaqaati, galma Waaqaa nami hin aggaamu. Aggaamee jennaan hin woggu,’ which translates to ‘This Afrocarpus gracilior is the abode of God; thus, it is strictly forbidden to harm the abode of God, as doing so invokes divine wrath. They further warned that violators would not live longer than a year after committing such an act.’ Reflecting this belief, key informants shared an anecdote with the researcher about a man who cleared bushes beneath a Afrocarpus gracilior at Biluu for the purpose of making his neighboring enclosure. Shortly afterward, the man accidentally broke his leg—an incident widely interpreted as divine retribution by local people. Since then, the informants noted, most local people have avoided the site out of reverence, acknowledging its sacred role in the Gadaa system as the abode of God. This practice underscores the vital role native trees play in the Gadaa system, indicating the deep-rooted connection between Gadaa rituals and native trees. Thus, it is evident that the links between native trees and rituals have been integral to the Gadaa system, reflecting the eco-cultural synergy embedded in these links—a result of Gadaa cosmologies that uphold the duality of culture and nature.

Ancestral commemoration and native tree

According to the mythical narratives of the Guji people, God created the first Guji ancestor from the Girja soil. The first man (ancestor) was named Haadaa, and his counterpart, Haawwaa, was believed to have been sent from heaven by Waaqaa to join Haadaa. These two individuals are widely regarded as the founding ancestors from whom Guji society descended. Over time, the ancestors settled around the Gannaale River, moved westward to a region called Ilaalaa, located in north eastern of Adoolaa Reedde district. As recounted in the Guji mythical narratives, after their arrival in Ilaalaa, the ancestors formalized their marriage under a sacred tree known as Ejersaa (Olea europaea subsp. africana). Since then, this tree has been revered as an ancestral commemoration site, approached with utmost care and respect in the Gadaa system of Guji society. The elderly informants emphasize that this tree and its surrounding area are considered the symbolic homestead of families-in-law, demanding the same level of respect and reverence accorded to in-laws in Guji tradition. Currently, Ilaalaa remains one of the sacred natural sites where the Guji society’s Gadaa councils perform rituals to honor their ancestors through commemoration, bridging past and present with imagination and ceremonial celebration.

Every eight years, the Gadaa councilors perform a commemoration ritual under the Ejersaa, slaughtering a gray bull to honor the ancestral site and the spirits of their forebears. The slaughter is conducted at night, ensuring no distractions or movement near the site, to maintain a serene environment conducive to reverence and adoration. During this ritual, the Gadaa councilors offer supplications to Waaqaa, saying, ‘Waaqa korma bulee kana nageyaan bulchii nu oolchi,’ which translates to, ‘The God who created this gray bull, keep us in peace every day and night’ (Interview with Duubee Carfoo June 2014 at Daraartuu). Throughout the slaughter and consumption of the bull's meat, speaking aloud is prohibited among the participants, and only whispered communication etiquette is permitted, reflecting the deep respect for the ancestral site. The councilors from the three phratries—Uraagaa, Maattii, and Hookkuu—gather at this site every eight years to fulfill this compulsory practice in the Gadaa system, as their gathering represents an approach of passing on Guji’s myth of origin from generation to generation. Thus, the Olea europaea subsp. africana in Ilaalaa area has been preserved as a sacred site for ancestral commemoration since time immemorial in the Guji Gadaa system, embodying the eco-cultural synergy of the Guji society.

The cosmological beliefs and links between rituals and trees

This section presents data about the underpinning cosmological belief behind the links between rituals and native trees to address the question what cosmological beliefs underpin the links between rituals and native trees. According to the data obtained from the informants, trees in general are believed to be the most sacred gifts of God to the earth and human kind. This belief in Guji society system takes the conviction that trees are a robe of the earth and sacred endowment of human kind, which have to be carefully managed and conserved for multiple socio-cultural functions they provide to present as well as coming generations. This belief system is foundationally based on the thought that considers Waaqaa (God) as father of all living things and nonliving things and the earth is as mother of all creatures. Even though trees and other natural features are culturally owed values as a result of this generic conviction, the sacredness of some trees and the symbolic association between native trees and various rituals emanated from this cosmological belief system. Similarly, this belief system deems the trees are natural vesture that God has sprouted on the land to cover the nudity of the earth, for the earth is perceived as mother of all creatures. As a result, a land without trees, shrubs, grasses and bushes and forest is considered as a naked person, because of the personification of the land in this belief system. Thus, this cosmological view laid the strong ground for the affinity of rituals and native trees that forms eco-cultural synergy in the manner that underpins the conservation efforts of native trees. In the Guji society, trees are while thought as belonged to God, humankind and wild animals, and thus people have no monopoly of utilization and delineation over them. Because, trees are while natural features, culturally defined natural elements, and supernaturally dedicated features to transcendental power, indicating the belief system embedded in the duality of culture and nature that fundamentally form eco-cultural synergy.

Based on this belief, some native trees in society are granted special status of sacredness and linked symbolically to various rituals, rites of passage, and other cultural events performed in the Gadaa system. For instances their leaves, texture, saps, roots and sizes are symbolically interpreted and connected to the culture, which pass on from generation to generation through intergenerational knowledge transmitting system. These rituals in general are connected to the Gadaa system, the indigenous socio-political institution and governance system in the Oromo nation in general and Guji society in particular. As already discussed earlier, the ritual such as libation, supplication, slaughtering and ancestral commemoration are inextricably connected to various native trees, and this connection is symbolically created and validated in society. In general, the links between rituals and native trees in Guji society reinforce the belief that trees are not merely physical objects but cultural conduits, maintaining harmony between humans, nature, and the divine. This contributes to the conservation of native trees, where ritual trees are occasionally superintended and checked by Gadaa councils, while also mandate of protecting them is given to the nearby inhabitants.

Ritual trees and eco-cultural synergy

This part discusses how the links between rituals and native trees in the Guji society form and sustain eco-cultural synergy and how eco-cultural synergy in turn underpins the conservation of native trees. As previously illustrated in the background part, eco-cultural synergy represents the harmonious integration of ecological sustainability and cultural practices, where human societies and natural ecosystems coexist in a mutually beneficial relationship. This concept emphasizes the interdependence of cultural practices and environmental stewardship, fostering a balance that ensures the well-being of both people and the planet. In the context of the Guji society, this synergy is particularly evident, as the natural environment is symbolically intersected with various cultural practices. As a result, society perceives no separation or dichotomy between human culture and natural ecosystems; instead, they view them as interconnected and complementary entities. This belief system symbolically grants trees, shrubs, bushes, and forests in society a cultural value based on cosmological belief systems and exemplifies a profound interconnection between cultural practices and ecological conservation.

Central to these links, practices, and belief systems is the veneration of native trees, which serve as sacred sites for supplication, libation, sacrificial rituals, and ancestral commemoration in the study area. These links and practices foster an eco-cultural synergy where local beliefs, cosmological views, and environmental stewardship converge, ensuring the protection of native tree species. The links between rituals and particular trees, such as Euphorbia candelabrum var. bilocularis (Hadaammaa), Ficus vasta Forssk (Qilxaa), Vachellia horrida subsp. benadirensis (Hurbuu), Afrocarpus gracilior (Birbissa), and Olea europaea subsp. africana (Ejersaa), in the Guji belief systems are profound and symbolically significant to the society. Each of these trees has a specific symbolic meaning that they indicate in the culture of society that forms and sustains eco-cultural synergy, showcasing the mutuality of native trees and cultural rituals. For instance, the Birbissa (Afrocarpus gracilior) is considered the abode of God, where the slaughtering rituals invoke blessings rather than appeasement. The Gadaa leaders warn that harming the tree leads to misfortune or death, ensuring its protection, which also heralds the existence of eco-cultural synergy in the study area. The Ejersaa (Olea europaea subsp. africana) tree marks the mythical marriage site of Haadaa and Haawwaa, the first Guji ancestors, as a symbolic homestead. This shows how myth connects the tree and contemporary cultural practice and belief system in the society. Every eight years, Gadaa councils slaughter a gray bull under this tree in complete silence, honoring their forebears. The sacrificial ritual (Biluu gubuu) is also performed under the Hurbuu tree (Vachellia horrida subsp. benadirensis) at the Biluu sacred site, where only authorized elders participate, ensuring solemnity and respect. Every eight years, the Abbaa Gadaa and only a few councilors slaughter cattle, roast the meat (Babaa or Woxalaa), and burn the remains as an offering to Waaqaa (God). As previously discussed in this paper, the anecdotes of divine punishment (e.g., a man struck by lightning for cutting the tree) reinforce protection, which showcases the prevalence of myths, taboos, and beliefs associated with sacred trees. This ritual underscores how sacred trees are preserved through fear of supernatural retribution, blending spirituality with environmental guardianship. Supplication (Daadimannaa) and libation (Dhibaayyuu) are also socio-spiritual practices conducted under sacred trees by Gadaa councils in society. These rituals stem from the belief that Waaqaa sustains the universe, and thus, gratitude and prayers must be offered to Him at natural sacred sites, specifically under Hadaammaa (Euphorbia candelabrum var. bilocularis) and Qilxaa (Ficus vasta Forssk.). These trees are central to cultural practices due to their symbolic meanings, such as their milky sap, which symbolizes abundance in livestock milk and prosperity, and deep roots and evergreen nature, representing resilience and continuity.

They are protected through a preventive belief system, as cutting them is believed to incur divine wrath that manifests in different ways. This belief system reinforces conservation by deterring deforestation and underpinning the trees' survival in the study area. The identification of these trees initially for ritual purposes is not arbitrary but rooted in their ecological and symbolic attributes, including their evergreen nature that represents eternal life and divine blessings, milky sap symbolizing fertility and abundance in livestock, and deep roots, which signify stability and long-term prosperity. For instance, certain tree species are identified as sacred and are protected through customary laws, reflecting the society's cultural motives to preserve both their cultural heritage and the natural environment [17]. This dual significance of trees as both ecological and cultural assets further illustrates the significant integration of nature and culture in Guji society. Thus, the links between rituals and native trees in the Guji society exemplify the eco-cultural synergy, where ecological sustainability and cultural practices are not only interconnected but also mutually reinforcing. The links between rituals—supplication, sacrifice, slaughter, and ancestral commemoration—and native trees showcase eco-cultural synergy, where belief systems and local taboos contribute to native tree conservation as they are considered cultural features and divine resources. By attributing sacredness to specific trees symbolically, embedding them in cosmology, and enforcing taboos, the links between rituals and trees underpin ecological preservation alongside cultural continuity. This indigenous model offers valuable insights for modern conservation strategies, demonstrating how cultural beliefs can underpin biodiversity conservation.

Contemporary challenges to eco-cultural synergy

Understanding the contemporary challenges facing ritual-tree links in the study area provides insight into the present challenges affecting eco-cultural synergy formed in culture-nature affinity. The informants noted that despite the cultural links between rituals and native trees in Guji society and regulated by the Gadaa system, these practices face increasing anthropogenic and natural pressures, including deforestation, climate change, and the degradation of ritual trees. They reported a growing disregard among the young generation for the rules and belief systems of the Gadaa system—which traditionally safeguards native trees—attributing this shift to the influence of modern education and the spread of mainstream religions, particularly Christianity and Islam, in Guji society. They also emphasized that modern education, which promotes modernization, is overshadowing and oppressing local knowledge systems and ritual practices. The data gathered from informants during interviews and FGDs reveal that these pressures influence local belief systems and customary practices. This occurs through teachings and indoctrination imposed by external religions, which often marginalize indigenous cultures. In this regard, one key informant explained: ‘worri amantaa kiristaanaafi Islaama hordofu, aadaa teenna akka seexaafi haraamaatti ilaala,’ meaning, ‘followers of Christianity and Islam regard our culture as demonic and forbidden acts.’ This perception, they argued, undermines the acceptability and practicability of local belief systems that support conservation efforts, as many people have been converting to their religions, adopting their principles and dogmas that contradict local belief systems. The demonization and disdain for rituals performed under native trees undermine the sustainability of practices that are vital for safeguarding these trees and broader biodiversity—ultimately harming the very ecosystems that benefit human societies.Consequently, agricultural land encroachment has expanded into areas where ritual trees are predominantly found, particularly at the Biluu and Daraartu sites—key hotspots for ritual-tree connections. The key challenges discussed by informants regarding contemporary challenges to eco-cultural synergy in the study area include farmland expansion, declining adherence to traditional beliefs and customary laws, conversion to faiths like Christianity and Islam, and modern education systems that neglect the importance of the links between native trees and rituals that underpin conservation practices. Data obtained from experts at the Culture and Tourism Office in Adoolaa Reedde district reveal weak collaboration between Gadaa leaders and the office, despite initial efforts to promote local culture and preserve cultural landscapes, including ritual trees. The experts also noted that due to financial constraints and a lack of budget, the office is failing to effectively monitor these ritual trees and cultural landscapes.

On the other hand, informants also presented how natural processes, such as drought, can affect sacred trees linked to various rituals. One of the examples is a sacred Ficus vasta Forssk tree in the Adoolaa Reedde district administrative compound that dried up and fell by itself. In response, Gadaa leaders gathered at the site, performed a metaphoric farewell ceremony for it, and replanted the same species alongside performing a blessing ritual for its flourishment. This adaptive strategy demonstrates efforts to sustain the ritual-tree connection, reinforcing the eco-cultural synergy in the Guji society.