Plant species diversity and life forms

In the study area, 138 plant species representing 120 genera and 54 families were collected. Botanical names, family names, life forms, habitats, parts used, and ethnobotanical uses of these plant species were elucidated in (Table 2). Asteraceae was the dominant family with the highest number of plant species (14), followed by Fabaceae (12), Solanaceae (10), Poaceae (9), Amaranthaceae (7), Brassicaceae (5), Cucurbitaceae (5), Lamiaceae (5), Apiaceae (4), Euphorbiaceae (4), Apocynaceae (3), Malvaceae (3), Myrataceae (3), Polygonaceae (3), Rhamnaceae (3), Rosaceae (3), Anacardiaceae (2), Convolvulaceae (2), Moraceae (2), Plantaginaceae (2), Verbenaceae (2), Zygophyllaceae (2), Amaryllidaceae (2), Acanthaceae (1), Araceae (1), Arecaceae (1), Asphodelaceae (1), Athyriaceae (1), Berberidaceae (1), Cannabaceae (1), Commelinaceae (1), Cordiaceae (1), Cyperaceae (1), Equisetaceae (1), Geraniaceae(1), Heliotropiaceae (1), Hypericaceae (1), Lythraceae (1), Meliaceae (1), Linderniaceae (1), Nitrariaceae (1), Oxalidaceae (1), Papavaraceae (1), Portulacaceae (1), Punicaceae (1), Ranunculaceae (1), Rutaceae (1), Salvadoraceae (1), Spinadaceae (1), Tamaricaceae (1), Typhaceae (1), Urticaceae (1), Viticeae (1), Zingiberaceae (1) (Fig. 2). Our results were parallel with a research study conducted by Bibi et al. [34] that Asteraceae was the dominant family in terms of plant species number (11 spp). A study conducted by Dastagir et al. [35] concluded that Asteraceae was the dominant family having (7) plant species followed by Apiaceae (4), Lamiaceae (3), and Fabaceae (3) while conducting research studies on floristic diversity and medicinal plants of Chitral, Pakistan. Similar results were also reported by previous literature [36].

Table 2 Ethnobotanical and traditional use of plant resources of study areaFig. 2

Number of plant species with their family names in the study area

Herbs were the dominant plant species (75%), followed by trees (14%), and shrubs (11%) (Fig. 3). Herbs (69%) were the dominant life forms used in the formulation of herbal recipes followed by trees (15%), shrubs (12%), and climbers (3%) [37]. Zareef et al. [38] reported 169 medicinal plant species and the family Poaceae was dominant having 17 plant species from District Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Herbs (61%) were the dominant life form and leaves (35%) were frequently used as part of plant species. Rahman et al. [39] documented that herbaceous plants were the dominant plant species (259) and the family Asteraceae had a maximum number of plant species (36) while studying the Mahnoor valley of lessor Himalaya, Pakistan.

Fig. 3

Life forms of plant species found in the study area

Mesophytes were the dominant plants (92%), followed by xerophytes (4%), hydrophytes (3%), and epiphytes (1) (Fig. 4). Saman et al. [40] reported 74 plant species belonging to 39 families were used in the preparation of 45 polyherbal and 101 monoherbal recipes for treating different types of diseases from Shakardara and adjacent villages of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. Rehman et al. [41] documented 108 plant species belonging to 54 families used to treat 119 different types of ailments from Shawal Valley District North Waziristan, Pakistan. Ahmad et al. [42] reported 112 plant species in which 84 plant species were used for medicinal, 35 plant species fodder, 26 plant species marketing, 24 plant species fuel and 14 plant species for ornamental purposes from district Kotli Pakistan. A racent study by Amin et al. [43] reported that herbs (72%) were dominant growth form followed by trees (17%) and shrubs (10%) in district Kohistan, North Pakistan.

Fig. 4

Habitat of plant species found in the study area

In herbal preparation, the herbaceous life form was utilized most frequently (78 plant species; 52%), followed by shrubs (27 plant species; 18%), trees (25 plant species; 16.6%), and ferns (5 plant species; 3.3%), grasses (12 plant species; 8%), and epiphytes or climbers [31]. Umair et al. [44] reported that the wild herbaceous flora made up 51% of the reported plant species, while studying ethnomedicinal local flora of Punjab, Pakistan. Perennial herbs were the most prevalent living behavior in the research area. Medicinal plants often have perpetual life cycles. Wild trees (13%) accounted of the medicinal flora, wild grasses and shrubs (8%) each, cultivated herbs (7%), shrubs (6%), grasses (5%) and cultivated grass and wild ferns for 1% each [45]. Similar results were reported by [46] and documented the leaves of Mentha longifolia, Mentha arvensis etc. for fresh salad and Medicago plant species as a leafy vegetable.

Parts of the plant species used in ethnomedicines

Leaves were the most dominant part of plant species, while rhizome was the least used part of plants for different purposes (Fig. 5). Their percentage was in leaves (43%), fruits (20%), whole plant (17%), stem (6%), seeds (5%), roots (4%), inflorescence (2%), bulbs (1%) and rhizome (1%). Similar results were reported by Bibi et al. [34] that, the leaves (24%) of the medicinal plants were the most frequently used part in the preparation of recipes. Aziz et al. [13] demonstrated that leaves (70%) were the dominant part of plant species used for the treatment of diabetes, followed by fruits (49%), seeds (20%), stem (10%), barks (9%), and whole plant (9%) while researching medicinal plants of northwest Pakistan. Young shoots and leaves (30%) were the most used part of plant species followed by fruits (18%), seeds (15%), bulbs (6%), and rhizomes (3%) in preparation of herbal medicines [47]. Ahmad et al. [48] reported that herbs (58%) were dominant life forms of all reported plants, followed by shrubs (28%), trees (12%), and climbers (2%).

Fig. 5

Parts of plants plant species used for different purposes

Our research study was in line with previous studies [49,50,51,52]. The leaves (33%) were the most often used part of the plant, followed by roots (17%), fruits (14%), the entire plant (12%), and rhizomes (9%), stems (6%), barks (5%), and seeds (4%). Similar results were also reported by [49] that leaves (70%) were the most commonly used plant parts in medicines, followed by seeds (10%), roots (6%), latex ( %), bark, bulb, flowers, tubers, and rhizomes (2% each) while conducting research in lesser Himalaya northern Pakistan [53, 54]. Concluded that the leaves of the plants were frequently used part in ethnomedicines while conducting a research study on the ethnobotany of the north west of Pakistan. Rehman et al. [55] suggested that the leaves (43.90%) of medicinal plants were frequently used in the preparation of remedies for the treatment of dental disorders. Similar results were also reported by Akhtar et al. [56], leaves (24%) were dominant part of plant species used for different purposes followed by fruits (18%) and roots (15%) in district Swat, Pakistan. Adnan et al. [57] reported that leaves were the dominant part of (34%) plant species used in the preparation of ethnomedicines in war affected areas of North West Pakistan. Ahmed et al. [58] reported that leaves (36.61%) were mostly used part of plant species for making indigenous recipe followed by fruits (24.11%) while studying ethnobotanical use of plants plant species in Tehsil Murree, Northwest Pakistan. The leaves and roots (17 plant species), fruits (16 plant species), seeds and nuts (15 plant species), bark (14 plant species) and gums and resins (13 plant species) were used to make various medications [59].

Ethnomedicinal uses of plant species

Ethnomedicinal uses of plant species for 21 diseases are given in (Table 3). The highest informant consensus factor (0.97) was recorded for kidney disorders. The lowest informant consensus factor (0.70) was recorded for chest infection. It is an indication that the majority of the plant species were traditionally used for treating different types of diseases from alopecia to xeroderma. Our findings were accordance to previous literature as Bibi et al. [60] documented the highest ICF value for A. millefolium (0.19) and the lowest ICF value for B. sindica (0.02) in the Balochistan province of Pakistan. An ethnobotanical study conducted by Aziz et al. [61] in tribal areas of Pakistan documented that C. procera had the highest ICF value (0.86), followed by C. sativa (0.82), M. piperita (0.82), M. longifolia (0.76), A. sativum (0.73), C. sativum (0.73) and F. vulgare (0.72). In an ethnobotanical study conducted by Bibi et al. [34] the highest ICF value (1.00) was calculated for the antidote category. Ali et al. [62] reported that participants have categorized plant uses into 15 categories while studying the floristic diversity of Swat valley, Pakistan. Almost nearly nine percent of the participants agree on choosing and usage of plants for the treatment of evil eyes, with comparable findings for body cuts (8.2%) and psychological/neural diseases (8.0%). Respondents agree that B. lyceum leads in all five criteria. S. laureola is also a key ethnobotanical plant, rating second in the salience index, sixth in the relative importance index, seventh in cultural value index, and third in the cultural importance index. It ranks thirty-fifth in the conservation priority index. Abbas et al. [63] reported that 53 percent of the plant species had many uses, 21% were eaten as wild fruits and vegetables, and 43 percent were used to treat various illnesses. The most commonly used medicinal plant species were determined to be Thymus linearis, Hippophae rhamnoides, Convolvulus arvensis; that with the highest RFCi values (0.54, 0.51, and 0.48, respectively) while studying the flora of Karakoram Range northern Pakistan. In an ethnobotanical study conducted in northern Punjab, Pakistan, herbs from 35 different plant species are utilized to treat various diseases [59]. Adnan et al. [57] reported that he use of plant species for carminative purposes were highest (14 spp), followed by blood purification in war affected areas of Northwest Pakistan.

Table 3 ICF values for different ailments in study areaUse values of single plant

Use values determined the use of a particular plant species for the treatment of a disease that was cited by many informants. Use values of a single plant species were elucidated in (Table 4). S. cumini was highly cited (0.78) by the informants for the treatment of ear diseases. C. lemon was less cited (0.03) by the local inhabitants for the relief of vomiting. The higher use values of plants in the study area mean that the particular plant species was frequently found in that area. Maximum numbers of plant species (16 spp) were used for the treatment of indigestion, followed by diarrhea (11 spp) and cough (10 spp) [41]. Bibi et al. [34] documented the highest use values reports for C. colocynthis (5 URs), C. tuberculata (5 URs), M. neglecta (5 URs), and M. longifolia (5 URs). Aziz et al. [61] concluded that the use values of a single plant were recorded for B. lycium (0.94) followed by V. indica (0.90), I. rugosus (0.88), F. vulgare (0.87), P. harmala (0.86), S. virginianum (0.85), and C. fistula (0.79) in a research study conducted in tribal areas of Pakistan. Bibi et al. [60] reported that A. baluchistanicum (0.73) and B. baluchistanica (0.56) have the highest use reports of (8 each) and lowest use reports of T. stocksii (0.13). Low use values did not mean that the plant species was not important; it meant that the plant species was less available to local inhabitants. Plant species with low use value should not be ignored and their use should be transferred to the next coming generation. An ethnobotanical study conducted by Khan and Badshah [64] in district Charsadda, Pakistan revealed that the majority of the plant species (164) were used as fodder/forage, fruits (27 spp), vegetables (28 spp), fuel (47 spp), medicinal (66 spp), timber (21 spp), thatching (8 spp), insect attractant (29 spp), and only 4 plant species were used as spices (condiments), while some plant species, such as Dryopteris stewartii, Equisetum arvense, Eichhornia crassipes have not reported for any use. Khan et al. [65] suggested that the importance of every medicinal plant species in the area was significant,some have gained significant traction in the local healthcare system. Dioscorea deltoidea, for example, was used locally as an anthelmintic and tonic for urinary tract infections. Podophyllum hexandrum was used by the local hakeems (traditional medicine specialists) to cure cancer and stomach issues. Berberis pseudoumbellata fruit was prized as a tonic, while its powdered bark was used locally to cure fever, backaches, jaundice, and urinary tract infections. Cypripedium cordigerum and Dactylorhiza hatagirea were two orchid plant species that were used as nerve tonics and aphrodisiacs. Two other notable plant species for medicinal purposes were Aesculus indica and Cedrus deodara. Cedrus deodara oil was used to treat skin conditions, and Aesculus indica powdered fruit nuts were used to treat colic and eliminate worms. In terms of both plant species diversity and frequency of citation (FC), the Rosaceae family emerged as the dominant group. Fruit was the portion most frequently consumed, and July was the best month to find wild fruit products. Olea ferrugenia was the most often cited plant species, with an FC = 1. Amaranthus spinosus came in second (FC = 0.93). Approximately 14% (7) of the recorded plant species were commercially viable, while 27% (14) were initially reported to be utilized as wild food products plant species in Pakistan [30].

Table 4 Use values of different plant species for the treatment of different diseasesTraditional uses of plants (FL%)

Fidelity level was used to identify plant species that were mostly preferred by local inhabitants. Fidelity-level percentage results are shown in (Table 5). It determined the value of a plant species for medicinal purposes as well as other purposes. The highest fidelity level percentage (91.8) was recorded for A. sativum for the treatment of alopecia and other uses. The lowest fidelity percentage (41.7) was recorded for M. longifolia for wound healing and other traditional uses. Our research study was concordant with the other recent research studies. In an ethnobotanical study conducted by Bibi et al. [34] the highest fidelity level (100%) was calculated for the C. tuberculata, C. colocynthis, S. quettense, and A. welhemsii in Mastung District of Baluchistan, Pakistan. According to a research study conducted by Ullah et al. [66] on two medicinal plants plant species in District Bannu, Pakistan, the fidelity level of B. lyceum (89.9%) was highest for the treatment of gastro ulcers followed by D. blancoi (62.2%) for abdominal diseases, and Solanum nigrum and S. thea (53.3%) for blood disorders while the lowest fidelity level was recorded for the A. grahamianus, C. longifolia, and X. strumarium. In a research study conducted by Bibi et al. [60] in Baluchistan province, the fidelity level of two plant species viz S. quettense and B. baluchistanica were (100%). Rehman et al. [55] reported the highest fidelity level (100%) for B. ciliata, J. regia, and E. procera followed by B. lyceum (97.67%) for the treatment of various tooth problems. A research study conducted by Liaqat et al. [67] suggested that B. lyceum and P. lenceolata had maximum fidelity levels (100%). According to Hussain et al. [68] herbs were commonly employed to treat digestive issues, including carminative (12 spp), diarrhea (11 spp), laxative (11 spp), and ulcers, (7 spp), appetizer (5 spp), digestive pain (4 spp), and antihelmintic (4 spp). Khan et al. [69] reported the use of certain plant species as a food in different cooking recipe like raw form, cooked, boiled in water etc. used by three ethnic groups in northwest Pakistan. Aziz et al. [70] reported various plant species that were used for the treatment of animal ailments in Pakistan.

Table 5 Fidelity level of studied medicinal plants in study areaAverage direct matrix ranking

The average direct matrix ranking by 15 informants for 10 plant species was revealed in (Table 6). The highest ranking (1st) for ten plant species was recorded for their use in medicinal purposes. It was followed by Ethno- veterinary uses and food plants (2nd), Fuel plants and Timber /construction plants (3rd), Vegetable (4th), Furniture (5th), Fodder plants (6th), and Agricultural tools, Honey bee plants and Ornamental plants (7th). The last ranking (8th) was recorded for fencing, oil extraction, and fruit purposes by 15 key informants. The over-collection of plant species for fuel, food, and construction purposes leads to extinction and causes a huge loss of biodiversity. A study conducted by Khan and Khan [71] suggested that wood from timber plants was exported to nearby industries for making furniture and timber. Plant species like A. nilotica, D. sissoo, and Z. jujuba were under high pressure in the study area due to the high market value for timber/construction products. According to a study done in Pakistan's Gujrat region, D. sissoo used to make 80% of industrial furniture. The most commonly used non-timber forest product plant species include A. nilotica, A. modesta, Z. nummularia, C. decidua, and M. boxifolia. Our results were similar to that of Murad et al. [72] and reported a high rank of plant species that were used for medicinal purposes. Ahmad et al. [73] reported that the average direct matrix ranking (DMR) of tree plant species, Olea ferruginea was shown to have the highest multipurpose usage (56), followed by firewood (28), fodder (20), fruit and food (20), hedges and fences (12), while studying the ethno pharmacological uses of plant in Kashmir, Pakistan. Ahmed et al. [58] reported that plant species were used for medicinal and fodder purpose (27.93%) followed by other uses (16.90%), wild fruits (6.55%), and vegetables (5.52%) and for ethnoveterinary (3.72%), while studying ethnobotanical use of plants plant species in Tehsil Murree, Northwest Pakistan. Our results were parallel with the report of Aziz et al. [13] while studying the traditional use of wild food plants in Kaniguram, northwest Pakistan.

Table 6 average direct matrix ranking (DMR) of 15 key informants for 10 plant speciesPlant species common among study areas (Jaccard index/Similarity index)

Jaccard index result showed that the plant species found in urban area of Bannu and Kohat were more similar (JI = 0.88). The similarity index of plant species found in urban area of Bannu and Peshawar was 0.44. Similarity index of plant species found in urban area of Kohat and Peshawar was 0.22 that were less similar [Fig. 6]. Plant species (73) were common in all the three study areas. Plants plant species (4) were common in Bannu and Kohat study areas and plant species (2) were common in Bannu and Peshawar study areas. Plant species (4) were common in Kohat and Peshawar study areas. A research study conducted by Bahadur et al. [32] on ethnobotany of Peshawar valley reported the highest JI (0.87) and lowest (0.50). Highest the JI values indicated that these areas were close together, while lowest JI indicated that the habitat of plant species, cultural diversity and population density were far away from each other [74]. Similar results to our study were also reported by Amjad et al. [31] that the plant species found in neighboring areas,Pearl valley and Toli peer were more similar. An ethnopharmacological study conducted by [33] concluded, while studying the ethnopharmacological uses of plants in Pakistan that the highest similarity/jaccard index means that the study area was sharing same plant resources and floristic diversity. Similar report was documented by Abbas et al. [23] that there were certain common plant species that were traditionally used by different communities in Kurram, northwest Pakistan. Our findings were in accordance with Khalid et al. [75]. Aziz et al. [76] reported the similarity and overlapping the use of plant species utilized by different ethnics groups in northwest Baluchistan, Pakistan. Our findings were in accordance with the previous studies conducted in nearby areas of northwest, Pakistan [54,