Aringer, M. et al. 2019 European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology Classification Criteria for Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Arthritis Rheumatol. 71, 1400–1412 (2019).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Looney, R. J. et al. B cell depletion as a novel treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus: a phase I/II dose-escalation trial of rituximab. Arthritis Rheum. 50, 2580–2589 (2004).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Leandro, M. J., Edwards, J. C., Cambridge, G., Ehrenstein, M. R. & Isenberg, D. A. An open study of B lymphocyte depletion in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 46, 2673–2677 (2002).

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cohen, S. B. et al. Rituximab for rheumatoid arthritis refractory to anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy: results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase III trial evaluating primary efficacy and safety at twenty-four weeks. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 2793–2806 (2006).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jones, R. B. et al. Rituximab versus cyclophosphamide in ANCA-associated renal vasculitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 211–220 (2010).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Smith, R. M. et al. Rituximab as therapy to induce remission after relapse in ANCA-associated vasculitis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 79, 1243–1249 (2020).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guillevin, L. et al. Rituximab versus azathioprine for maintenance in ANCA-associated vasculitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 371, 1771–1780 (2014).

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Specks, U. et al. Efficacy of remission-induction regimens for ANCA-associated vasculitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 369, 417–427 (2013).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Reddy, V. et al. Internalization of rituximab and the efficiency of B cell depletion in rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheumatol. 67, 2046–2055 (2015).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lim, S. H. et al. Fc gamma receptor IIb on target B cells promotes rituximab internalization and reduces clinical efficacy. Blood 118, 2530–2540 (2011).

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cole, S. et al. Integrative analysis reveals CD38 as a therapeutic target for plasma cell-rich pre-disease and established rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res. Ther. 20, 85 (2018).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Clavarino, G. et al. Novel strategy for phenotypic characterization of human B lymphocytes from precursors to effector cells by flow cytometry. PLoS ONE 11, e0162209 (2016).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Álvarez Gómez, J. A. et al. BAFF system expression in double negative 2, activated naïve and activated memory B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. Front. Immunol. 14, 1235937 (2023).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rodig, S. J., Shahsafaei, A., Li, B., Mackay, C. R. & Dorfman, D. M. BAFF-R, the major B cell-activating factor receptor, is expressed on most mature B cells and B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders. Hum. Pathol. 36, 1113–1119 (2005).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tipton, C. M. et al. Diversity, cellular origin and autoreactivity of antibody-secreting cell population expansions in acute systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat. Immunol. 16, 755–765 (2015).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rivero, S. J., Díaz-Jouanen, E. & Alarcón-Segovia, D. Lymphopenia in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clinical, diagnostic, and prognostic significance. Arthritis Rheum. 21, 295–305 (1978).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dörner, T. & Lipsky, P. E. The essential roles of memory B cells in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 20, 770–782 (2024).

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Odendahl, M. et al. Disturbed peripheral B lymphocyte homeostasis in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Immunol. 165, 5970–5979 (2000).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu, M. et al. Type I interferons promote the survival and proinflammatory properties of transitional B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 16, 367–379 (2019).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Suurmond, J. et al. Patterns of ANA+ B cells for SLE patient stratification. JCI Insight 4, e127885 (2019).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Brown, G. J. et al. TLR7 gain-of-function genetic variation causes human lupus. Nature 605, 349–356 (2022).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Suurmond, J. et al. Loss of an IgG plasma cell checkpoint in patients with lupus. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 143, 1586–1597 (2019).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Eckl-Dorna, J. & Batista, F. D. BCR-mediated uptake of antigen linked to TLR9 ligand stimulates B-cell proliferation and antigen-specific plasma cell formation. Blood 113, 3969–3977 (2009).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lau, C. M. et al. RNA-associated autoantigens activate B cells by combined B cell antigen receptor/Toll-like receptor 7 engagement. J. Exp. Med. 202, 1171–1177 (2005).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Leadbetter, E. A. et al. Chromatin–IgG complexes activate B cells by dual engagement of IgM and Toll-like receptors. Nature 416, 603–607 (2002).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jenks, S. A. et al. Distinct effector B cells induced by unregulated Toll-like receptor 7 contribute to pathogenic responses in systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunity 49, 725–739.e6 (2018).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Walsh, E. R. et al. Dual signaling by innate and adaptive immune receptors is required for TLR7-induced B-cell-mediated autoimmunity. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109, 16276–16281 (2012).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wei, C. et al. A new population of cells lacking expression of CD27 represents a notable component of the B cell memory compartment in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Immunol. 178, 6624–6633 (2007).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baxter, R. M. et al. Expansion of extrafollicular B and T cell subsets in childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Front. Immunol. 14, 1208282 (2023).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sasaki, T. et al. Longitudinal immune cell profiling in patients with early systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheumatol. 74, 1808–1821 (2022).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lam, J. H. & Baumgarth, N. Toll-like receptor mediated inflammation directs B cells towards protective antiviral extrafollicular responses. Nat. Commun. 14, 3979 (2023).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jacobi, A. M. et al. HLA-DRhigh/CD27high plasmablasts indicate active disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69, 305–308 (2010).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Banchereau, R. et al. Personalized immunomonitoring uncovers molecular networks that stratify lupus patients. Cell 165, 551–565 (2016).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rovin, B. H. et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in patients with active proliferative lupus nephritis: the Lupus Nephritis Assessment with Rituximab study. Arthritis Rheum. 64, 1215–1226 (2012).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Merrill, J. T. et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in moderately-to-severely active systemic lupus erythematosus: the randomized, double-blind, phase II/III systemic lupus erythematosus evaluation of rituximab trial. Arthritis Rheum. 62, 222–233 (2010).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Reddy, V., Jayne, D., Close, D. & Isenberg, D. B-cell depletion in SLE: clinical and trial experience with rituximab and ocrelizumab and implications for study design. Arthritis Res. Ther. 15, S2 (2013).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

McCarthy, E. M. et al. Short-term efficacy and safety of rituximab therapy in refractory systemic lupus erythematosus: results from the British Isles Lupus Assessment Group Biologics Register. Rheumatology 57, 470–479 (2018).

CAS  PubMed