Cordero RR, Sepúlveda E, Feron S, Damiani A, Fernandoy F, Neshyba S, et al. Black carbon footprint of human presence in Antarctica. Nat Commun. 2022;13:984.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

The Lancet Public H. Mitigating climate change must be a priority for public health. Lancet Public Health. 2021;6:e620.

Article  Google Scholar 

Dedoussi IC, Eastham SD, Monier E, Barrett SRH. Premature mortality related to United States cross-state air pollution. Nature. 2020;578:261–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thurston GD, Ito K, Lall R. A source apportionment of U.S. fine particulate matter air pollution. Atmos Environ (1994). 2011;45:3924–36.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Disparities in the Impact of Air Pollution. https://www.lung.org/clean-air/outdoors/who-is-at-risk/disparities.

Rogalsky DK, Mendola P, Metts TA, Martin WJ 2nd. Estimating the number of low-income americans exposed to household air pollution from burning solid fuels. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122:806–10.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Noonan CW, Ward TJ, Semmens EO. Estimating the number of vulnerable people in the United States exposed to residential wood smoke. Environ Health Perspect. 2015;123:A30.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rogalsky DK, Mendola P, Metts TA, Martin WJ 2nd. Estimating the number of vulnerable people in the United States exposed to residential wood smoke: Rogalsky et al. respond. Environ Health Perspect. 2015;123:A30–31.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

WHO. WHO global air quality guidelines. Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021.

Janssen NA, Hoek G, Simic-Lawson M, Fischer P, van Bree L, ten Brink H, et al. Black carbon as an additional indicator of the adverse health effects of airborne particles compared with PM10 and PM2.5. Environ Health Perspect. 2011;119:1691–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Grahame TJ, Klemm R, Schlesinger RB. Public health and components of particulate matter: the changing assessment of black carbon. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2014;64:620–60.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aguilera R, Corringham T, Gershunov A, Benmarhnia T. Wildfire smoke impacts respiratory health more than fine particles from other sources: observational evidence from Southern California. Nat Commun. 2021;12:1493.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Thurston GD, Burnett RT, Turner MC, Shi Y, Krewski D, Lall R, et al. Ischemic heart disease mortality and long-term exposure to source-related components of U.S. fine particle air pollution. Environ Health Perspect. 2016;124:785–94.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ostro B, Hu J, Goldberg D, Reynolds P, Hertz A, Bernstein L, et al. Associations of mortality with long-term exposures to fine and ultrafine particles, species and sources: results from the California Teachers Study Cohort. Environ Health Perspect. 2015;123:549–56.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beelen R, Hoek G, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Stafoggia M, Andersen ZJ, Weinmayr G, et al. Natural-cause mortality and long-term exposure to particle components: an analysis of 19 European cohorts within the multi-center ESCAPE project. Environ Health Perspect. 2015;123:525–33.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hime NJ, Marks GB, Cowie CT. A comparison of the health effects of ambient particulate matter air pollution from five emission sources. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15:1206.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Martenies SE, Keller JP, WeMott S, Kuiper G, Ross Z, Allshouse WB, et al. A spatiotemporal prediction model for black carbon in the Denver metropolitan area, 2009–2020. Environ Sci Technol. 2021;55:3112–23.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jung KH, Goodwin KE, Perzanowski MS, Chillrud SN, Perera FP, Miller RL, et al. Personal exposure to black carbon at school and levels of fractional exhaled nitric oxide in New York City. Environ Health Perspect. 2021;129:97005.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cassee FR, Heroux ME, Gerlofs-Nijland ME, Kelly FJ. Particulate matter beyond mass: recent health evidence on the role of fractions, chemical constituents and sources of emission. Inhal Toxicol. 2013;25:802–12.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nagappan A, Park SB, Lee SJ, Moon Y. Mechanistic implications of biomass-derived particulate matter for immunity and immune disorders. Toxics. 2021;9:18.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bunn HJ, Dinsdale D, Smith T, Grigg J. Ultrafine particles in alveolar macrophages from normal children. Thorax. 2001;56:932–4.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bai Y, Bove H, Nawrot TS, Nemery B. Carbon load in airway macrophages as a biomarker of exposure to particulate air pollution; a longitudinal study of an international Panel. Part Fibre Toxicol. 2018;15:14.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Orr A, Migliaccio CAL, Buford M, Ballou S, Migliaccio CT. Sustained effects on lung function in community members following exposure to hazardous PM2.5 levels from wildfire smoke. Toxics. 2020;8:53.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bai Y, Brugha RE, Jacobs L, Grigg J, Nawrot TS, Nemery B. Carbon loading in airway macrophages as a biomarker for individual exposure to particulate matter air pollution - a critical review. Environ Int. 2015;74:32–41.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cheng W, Liu Y, Tang J, Duan H, Wei X, Zhang X, et al. Carbon content in airway macrophages and genomic instability in Chinese carbon black packers. Arch Toxicol. 2020;94:761–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jacobs L, Emmerechts J, Mathieu C, Hoylaerts MF, Fierens F, Hoet PH, et al. Air pollution related prothrombotic changes in persons with diabetes. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118:191–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kulkarni N, Pierse N, Rushton L, Grigg J. Carbon in airway macrophages and lung function in children. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:21–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Eguiluz-Gracia I, Schultz HH, Sikkeland LI, Danilova E, Holm AM, Pronk CJ, et al. Long-term persistence of human donor alveolar macrophages in lung transplant recipients. Thorax. 2016;71:1006–11.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nayak DK, Zhou F, Xu M, Huang J, Tsuji M, Hachem R, et al. Long-term persistence of donor alveolar macrophages in human lung transplant recipients that influences donor-specific immune responses. Am J Transpl. 2016;16:2300–11.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bai Y, Casas L, Scheers H, Janssen BG, Nemery B, Nawrot TS. Mitochondrial DNA content in blood and carbon load in airway macrophages. A panel study in elderly subjects. Environ Int. 2018;119:47–53.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cao X, Lin L, Sood A, Ma Q, Zhang X, Liu Y, et al. Small airway wall thickening assessed by computerized tomography is associated with low lung function in Chinese carbon black packers. Toxicol Sci. 2020;178:26–35.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liu H, Li J, Ma Q, Tang J, Jiang M, Cao X, et al. Chronic exposure to diesel exhaust may cause small airway wall thickening without lumen narrowing: a quantitative computerized tomography study in Chinese diesel engine testers. Part Fibre Toxicol. 2021;18:14.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Miri M, Rezaei H, Momtaz SM, Najafi ML, Adli A, Pajohanfar NS, et al. Determinants of carbon load in airway macrophages in pregnant women. Environ Pollut. 2022;297:118765.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kulkarni NS, Prudon B, Panditi SL, Abebe Y, Grigg J. Carbon loading of alveolar macrophages in adults and children exposed to biomass smoke particles. Sci Total Environ. 2005;345:23–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Stirling DR, Swain-Bowden MJ, Lucas AM, Carpenter AE, Cimini BA, Goodman A. CellProfiler 4: improvements in speed, utility and usability. BMC Bioinforma. 2021;22:433.

Article  Google Scholar 

MacLEAP: machine-learning approach for recognition and quantification of carbon content in airway macrophages. In: Society of Toxicology 61st Annual Meeting. San Diego: Oxford University Press; 2022.

He K, Gkioxari G, Dollár P, Girshick R. Mask R-CNN. In: IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV). Venice: IEEE; 2017. p. 2980–8.

Waleed A. Mask R-CNN for object detection and instance segmentation on Keras and TensorFlow. GitHub repository; 2017. https://github.com/matterport/Mask_RCNN.

Download Daily Data. https://www.epa.gov/outdoor-air-quality-data/download-daily-data.

Martenies SE, Hoskovec L, Wilson A, Allshouse WB, Adgate JL, Dabelea D, et al. Assessing the impact of wildfires on the use of black carbon as an indicator of traffic exposures in environmental epidemiology studies. GeoHealth. 2021;5:e2020GH000347.

Article  CAS  PubMed