ABSTRACT

This study explores the potential of nasal secretions to serve as a source of biomarkers for diagnosing respiratory conditions. A total of 40 inflammatory biomarkers were detected and quantified in participants with upper respiratory diseases, including chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), allergic rhinitis, and viral and bacterial infections. The different expression levels of various biomarkers could distinguish CRS participants with and without nasal polyps (i.e. CRP, GzmB, IL-4, MMP-1, MMP-8, SAA and TREM-1), and healthy and rhinitis participants (i.e. CRP, EGF, Eotaxin-1, Fractalkine, IL-1RA, IL-5, IP-10 and TRAIL). CRP, G-CSF, GzmA, IL-1, IL-2, IL-5, IL-8, IL-9, MMP-1, TNFa and TREM-1 protein expression differed between the healthy, viral and bacterial-infected individuals, and EGF, G-CSF, MCP-1, MIP1a and MIP-1b protein expression differed between type 2 and non-type 2 inflammatory cohorts. Significant correlations were also noted between SNOT-22 scores and specific cytokines, such as IP-10 and TRAIL. Despite the heterogeneity of patient diagnoses, these findings highlight the potential of nasal fluid as a readily accessible reflection of respiratory health. Future studies with larger cohorts and standardized methodologies are needed to validate these biomarkers and potentially enable precision diagnosis and improved treatment of respiratory conditions.

Competing Interest Statement

All authors receive financial compensation from Diag-Nose Medical, which funded this research. As such, they may have a financial or professional interest in the results. This relationship is disclosed in the author affiliations. No additional competing interests are declared.

Funding Statement

This work was funded by Diag-nose Medical.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

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The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

Ethics IRB of Advarra gave ethical approval for this work.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSANOVAAnalysis of VarianceCCL11C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 11CCL24C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 24CCL26C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 26COVID-19Coronavirus Disease 2019CRDChronic Respiratory DiseaseCRSChronic RhinosinusitisCX3CL1C-X3-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 1EGFEpidermal Growth FactorG-CSFGranulocyte Colony-Stimulating FactorGM-CSFGranulocyte Macrophage Colony-Stimulating FactorGzmAGranzyme AGzmBGranzyme BIFN-αInterferon-AlphaIFNγInterferon-GammaIL-1RAInterleukin-1 Receptor AntagonistIL-2Interleukin-2IL-3Interleukin-3IL-4Interleukin-4IL-5Interleukin-5IL-6Interleukin-6IL-8Interleukin-8IL-9Interleukin-9IL-10Interleukin-10IL-12p70Interleukin-12p70IL-13Interleukin-13IL-22Interleukin-22IL-37Interleukin-37IP-10Interferon Gamma-Induced Protein 10MCP-1Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein 1MIP-1αMacrophage Inflammatory Protein 1-AlphaMIP-1βMacrophage Inflammatory Protein 1-BetaMMP-1Matrix Metalloproteinase 1MMP-7Matrix Metalloproteinase 7MMP-8Matrix Metalloproteinase 8MPOMyeloperoxidaseSAASerum Amyloid ASNOT-22Sino-Nasal Outcome TestSPASpecialty Physician AssociatesTNF-αTumor Necrosis Factor AlphaTNFβTumor Necrosis Factor BetaTRAILTNF-Related Apoptosis Inducing LigandTREM-1Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 1TREM-2Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2