Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, et al. Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010. Lancet. 2012;380:2095–128.

Google Scholar 

Li Z, Lin L, Wu H, Yan L, Wang H, Yang H, Li H. Global, regional, and National death, and Disability-Adjusted Life-Years (DALYs) for cardiovascular disease in 2017 and trends and risk analysis from 1990 to 2017 using the global burden of disease study and implications for prevention. Front Public Health. 2021;9:559751.

Google Scholar 

Roth GA, Mensah GA, Johnson CO, Addolorato G, Ammirati E, Baddour LM, Barengo NC, Beaton AZ, Benjamin EJ, Benziger CP, Bonny A, Brauer M, Brodmann M, Cahill TJ, Carapetis J, Catapano AL, Chugh SS, Cooper LT, Coresh J, Criqui M, DeCleene N, Eagle KA, Emmons-Bell S, Feigin VL, Fernández-Solà J, Fowkes G, Gakidou E, Grundy SM, He FJ, Howard G, Hu F, Inker L, Karthikeyan G, Kassebaum N, Koroshetz W, Lavie C, Lloyd-Jones D, Lu HS, Mirijello A, Temesgen AM, Mokdad A, Moran AE, Muntner P, Narula J, Neal B, Ntsekhe M, de Moraes G, Otto C, Owolabi M, Pratt M, Rajagopalan S, Reitsma M, Ribeiro ALP, Rigotti N, Rodgers A, Sable C, Shakil S, Sliwa-Hahnle K, Stark B, Sundström J, Timpel P, Tleyjeh IM, Valgimigli M, Vos T, Whelton PK, Yacoub M, Zuhlke L, Murray C, Fuster V. GBD-NHLBI-JACC global burden of cardiovascular diseases writing group. global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk factors, 1990–2019: update from the GBD 2019 study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76:2982–3021.

Google Scholar 

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cardiovascular-diseases-(cvds).

Collaborators, G.B.D.C.o.D. Global, regional, and National age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980–2017: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017. Lancet. 2108;392:1736–88.

Google Scholar 

SCORE2 working group and ESC Cardiovascular risk collaboration. SCORE2 risk prediction algorithms: new models to estimate 10-year risk of cardiovascular disease in Europe. Eur Heart J. 2021;42(25):2439–54. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab309. PMID: 34120177; PMCID: PMC8248998.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Wu Y, Liu X, Li X, Li Y, Zhao L, Chen Z, Li Y, Rao X, Zhou B, Detrano R, Liu K, USA-PRC Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular and Cardiopulmonary Epidemiology Research Group. China multicenter collaborative study of cardiovascular epidemiology research group. Estimation of 10-year risk of fatal and nonfatal ischemic cardiovascular diseases in Chinese adults. Circulation. 2006;114:2217–25.

Google Scholar 

Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C, Robson J, Brindle P. Derivation, validation, and evaluation of a new QRISK model to estimate lifetime risk of cardiovascular disease: cohort study using QResearch database. BMJ. 2010;341:c6624.

Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Jones DM, Huffman MD, Karmali KN, et al. Estimating longitudinal risks and benefits from cardiovascular preventive therapies among medicare patients: the million hearts longitudinal ASCVD risk assessment tool: a special report from the American heart association and American college of cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;69:1617–36.

Google Scholar 

Jørstad HT, Colkesen EB, Boekholdt SM, Tijssen JG, Wareham NJ, Khaw KT, Peters RJ. Estimated 10-year cardiovascular mortality seriously underestimates overall cardiovascular risk. Heart. 2016;102:63–8.

Google Scholar 

Marma AK et al. Distribution of 10-year and lifetime predicted risks for cardiovascular disease in US adults: findings from the National health and nutrition examination survey 2003 to 2006Circ cardiovasc qual outcomes. 2010;3:8–14.

Cooney MT, et al. Re-evaluating the Rose approach: comparative benefits of the population and high-risk preventive strategies Eur. J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2009;16:541–9.

Google Scholar 

Berry JD, Dyer A, Cai X, Garside DB, Ning H, Thomas A, Greenland P, Van Horn L, Tracy RP, Lloyd-Jones DM. Lifetime risks of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:321–9.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Jones DM, Hong Y, Labarthe D, Mozaffarian D, Appel LJ, Van Horn L, Greenlund K, Daniels S, Nichol G, Tomaselli GF, Arnett DK, Fonarow GC, Ho PM, Lauer MS, Masoudi FA, Robertson RM, Roger V, Schwamm LH, Sorlie P, Yancy CW, Rosamond WD. American heart association strategic planning task force and statistics committee. Defining and setting National goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: the American heart association’s strategic impact goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation. 2010;121:586–613.

Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Jones DM, Leip EP, Larson MG, et al. Prediction of lifetime risk for cardiovascular disease by risk factor burden at 50 years of age. Circulation. 2006;113(6):791–79816461820.

Google Scholar 

Wilkins JT, Ning H, Berry J, Zhao L, Dyer AR, Lloyd-Jones DM. Lifetime risk and years lived free of total cardiovascular disease. JAMA. 2012;308:1795–801.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Hageman SHJ, Kaptoge S, de Vries TI, Lu W, Kist JM, van Os HJA, Numans ME, Läll K, Bobak M, Pikhart H, Kubinova R, Malyutina S, Pająk A, Tamosiunas A, Erbel R, Stang A, Schmidt B, Schramm S, Bolton TR, Spackman S, Bakker SJL, Blaha M, Boer JMA, Bonnefond A, Brenner H, Brunner EJ, Cook NR, Davidson K, Dennison E, Donfrancesco C, Dörr M, Floyd JS, Ford I, Fu M, Gansevoort RT, Giampaoli S, Gillum RF, Gómez-de-la-Cámara A, Håheim LL, Hansson PO, Harms P, Humphries SE, Ikram MK, Jukema JW, Kavousi M, Kiechl S, Kucharska-Newton A, Pablos DL, Matsushita K, Meyer HE, Moons KGM, Mortensen MB, Muilwijk M, Nordestgaard BG, Packard C, Pamieri L, Panagiotakos D, Peters A, Potier L, Providencia R, Psaty BM, Ridker PM, Rodriguez B, Rosengren A, Sattar N, Schöttker B, Schwartz JE, Shea S, Shipley MJ, Sofat R, Thorand B, Verschuren WMM, Völzke H, Wareham NJ, Westbury L, Willeit P, Zhou B, Danesh J, Visseren FLJ, Di Angelantonio E, Pennells L, Dorresteijn JAN. Prediction of individual lifetime cardiovascular risk and potential treatment benefit: development and recalibration of the LIFE-CVD2 model to four European risk regions. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2024;31:1690–9.

Google Scholar 

Kaasenbrood L, Bhatt DL, Dorresteijn JAN, Wilson PWF, D’Agostino RB, Sr, Massaro JM, van der Graaf Y, Cramer MJM, Kappelle LJ, de Borst GJ, Steg PG, Visseren FLJ. Estimated life expectancy without recurrent cardiovascular events in patients with vascular disease: the SMART-REACH model. J Am Heart Assoc. 2018;7:e009217.

Google Scholar 

Kengne AP, Patel A, Marre M, et al. Contemporary model for cardiovascular risk prediction in people with type 2 diabetes. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2011;18:393–98.

Google Scholar 

Younus A, Aneni EC, Spatz ES, et al. A systematic review of the prevalence and outcomes of ideal cardiovascular health in US and Non-US populations. Mayo Clin Proc. 2016;91:649–70.

Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Jones DM, Allen NB, Anderson CAM, Black T, Brewer LC, Foraker RE, Grandner MA, Lavretsky H, Perak AM, Sharma G, Rosamond W, American Heart Association. Life’s essential 8: updating and enhancing the American heart association’s construct of cardiovascular health: a presidential advisory from the American heart association. Circulation. 2022;146:e18–43.

Google Scholar 

Duprez DA, Kaiser DR, Whitwam W, Finkelstein S, Belalcazar A, Patterson R, Glasser S, Cohn JN. Determinants of radial artery pulse wave analysis in asymptomatic individuals. Am J Hypertens. 2004;17:647–53.

Google Scholar 

Cohn JN, Hoke L, Whitwam W, Sommers P, Taylor AL, Duprez D, Roessler R, Florea N. Screening for early detection of cardiovascular disease in asymptomatic individuals. Am J Heart J. 2003;146:679–85.

Google Scholar 

Mancini GBJ, Dahlof B, Diez J. Surrogate markers for cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2004;109:22–30.

Google Scholar 

Willeit P, Ridker PM, Nestel PJ, Simes J, Tonkin AM, Pedersen TR, Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Colhoun HM, Kronenberg F, Drechsler C, Wanner C, Mora S, Lesogor A, Tsimikas S. Baseline and on-statin treatment lipoprotein(a) levels for prediction of cardiovascular events: individual patient-data meta-analysis of Statin outcome trials. Lancet. 2018;392:1311–20.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Clarke R, Peden JF, Hopewell JC, Kyriakou T, Goel A, Heath SC, Parish S, Barlera S, Franzosi MG, Rust S, Bennett D, Silveira A, Malarstig A, Green FR, Lathrop M, Gigante B, Leander K, de Faire U, Seedorf U, Hamsten A, Collins R, Watkins H, Farrall M, PROCARDIS Consortium. Genetic variants associated with Lp(a) lipoprotein level and coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2518–28.

Khan SS, Matsushita K, Sang Y, Ballew SH, Grams ME, Surapaneni A, Blaha MJ, Carson AP, Chang AR, Ciemins E, Go AS, Gutierrez OM, Hwang SJ, Jassal SK, Kovesdy CP, Lloyd-Jones DM, Shlipak MG, Palaniappan LP, Sperling L, Virani SS, Tuttle K, Neeland IJ, Chow SL, Rangaswami J, Pencina MJ, Ndumele CE, Coresh J, Chronic Kidney Disease Prognosis Consortium and the American Heart Association Cardiovascular-Kidney-Metabolic Science Advisory Group. Development and validation of the American heart association’s PREVENT equations. Circulation. 2024;149:430–49.

Visseren FLJ, Mach F, Smulders YM, Carballo D, Koskinas KC, Bäck M, Benetos A, Biffi A, Boavida JM, Capodanno D, Cosyns B, Crawford C, Davos CH, Desormais I, Di Angelantonio E, Franco OH, Halvorsen S, Hobbs FDR, Hollander M, Jankowska EA, Michal M, Sacco S, Sattar N, Tokgozoglu L, Tonstad S, Tsioufis KP, van Dis I, van Gelder IC, Wanner C, Williams B, ESC National Cardiac Societies; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2021 ESC guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Eur Heart J. 2021;42:3227–337.

Google Scholar 

Wong ND, Budoff MJ, Ferdinand K, Graham IM, Michos ED, Reddy T, Shapiro MD, Toth PP. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk assessment: an American society for preventive cardiology clinical practice statement. Am J Prev Cardiol. 2022;10:100335.

Google Scholar 

Perone F, Bernardi M, Redheuil A, Mafrica D, Conte E, Spadafora L, Ecarnot F, Tokgozoglu L, Santos-Gallego CG, Kaiser SE, Fogacci F, Sabouret A, Bhatt DL, Paneni F, Banach M, Santos R, Biondi Zoccai G, Ray KK, Sabouret P. Role of cardiovascular imaging in risk assessment: recent advances, gaps in evidence, and future directions. J Clin Med. 2023;12:5563.

Google Scholar 

Azcui Aparicio RE, Ball J, Yiallourou S, Venkataraman P, Marwick T, Carrington MJ. Imaging-guided evaluation of subclinical atherosclerosis to enhance cardiovascular risk prediction in asymptomatic low-to-intermediate risk individuals: a systematic review. Prev Med. 2021;153:106819.

Google Scholar 

Gilstrap LG, Wang TJ. Biomarkers and cardiovascular risk assessment for primary prevention: an update. Clin Chem. 2012;58:72–82.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Manemann SM, Bielinski SJ, Moser ED, St Sauver JL, Takahashi PY, Roger VL, Olson JE, Chamberlain AM, Remaley AT, Decker PA, Killian JM, Larson NB. Variability in lipid levels and risk for cardiovascular disease: an electronic health record-based population cohort study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2023;12:e027639.

Google Scholar 

Antonopoulos AS, Angelopoulos A, Papanikolaou P, Simantiris S, Oikonomou EK, Vamvakaris K, Koumpoura A, Farmaki M, Trivella M, Vlachopoulos C, Tsioufis K, Antoniades C, Tousoulis D. Biomarkers of vascular inflammation for cardiovascular risk prognostication: A Meta-Analysis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2021:S1936-878X(21)00698-7.

Gooding HC, Gidding SS, Moran AE, Redmond N, Allen NB, Bacha F, Burns TL, Catov JM, Grandner MA, Harris KM, Johnson HM, Kiernan M, Lewis TT, Matthews KA, Monaghan M, Robinson JG, Tate D, Bibbins-Domingo K, Spring B. Challenges and opportunities for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease among young adults: report from a National heart, lung, and blood Institute working group. J Am Heart Assoc. 2020;9:e016115.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Heimlich JB, Bick AG. Somatic mutations in cardiovascular disease. Circ Res. 2022;130:149–61.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Behr ER, Dalageorgou C, Christiansen M, et al. Sudden arrhythmic death syndrome: familial evaluation identifies inheritable heart disease in the majority of families. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:1670–80.

Google Scholar 

Tan HL, Hofman N, van Langen IM, van der Wal AC, Wilde AA. Sudden unexplained death: heritability and diagnostic yield of cardiological and genetic examination in surviving relatives. Circulation. 2005;112:207–13.

Google Scholar 

Puddu PE, Schiariti M, Torromeo C. Gender and cardiovascular mortality in Northern and Southern European populations. Curr Pharm Des. 2016;22:3893–904.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Jones DM, Larson MG, Leip EP, Beiser A, D’Agostino RB, Kannel WB, et al. Lifetime risk for developing congestive heart failure: the Framingham heart study. Circulation. 2002;106:3068–72.

Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Jones DM, Larson MG, Beiser A, Levy D. Lifetime risk of developing coronary heart disease. Lancet. 1999;353:89–92.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Jones DM, Dyer AR, Wang R, Daviglus ML, Greenland P. Risk factor burden in middle age and lifetime risks for cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular death (Chicago heart association detection project in Industry). Am J Cardiol. 2007;99:535–40.

Google Scholar 

Störk S, Feelders RA, van den Beld AW, Steyerberg EW, Savelkoul HFJ, Lamberts SWJ, et al. Prediction of mortality risk in the elderly. Am J Med. 2006;119:519–25.

Google Scholar 

Slopen N, Goodman E, Koenen KC, Kubzansky LD. Socioeconomic and other social stressors and biomarkers of cardiometabolic risk in youth: a systematic review of less studied risk factors. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e64418.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Rong S, Li B, Chen L, Sun Y, Du Y, Liu B, Robinson JG, Bao W. Association of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels with more than 20-year risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in the general population. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11:e023690.

Google Scholar 

Steinberg D. In celebration of the 100th anniversary of the lipid hypothesis of atherosclerosis. J Lipid Res. 2013;54:2946–9.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Braunwald E. How to live to 100 before developing clinical coronary artery disease: a suggestion. Eur Heart J. 2022;43:249–50.

Google Scholar 

Domanski MJ, Tian X, Wu CO, Reis JP, Dey AK, Gu Y, Zhao L, Bae S, Liu K, Hasan AA, Zimrin D, Farkouh ME, Hong CC, Lloyd-Jones DM, Fuster V. Time course of LDL cholesterol exposure and cardiovascular disease event risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76:1507–16.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Ference BA, Bhatt DL, Catapano AL, Packard CJ, Graham I, Kaptoge S, Ference TB, Guo Q, Laufs U, Ruff CT, Cupido A, Hovi