Ackerman, J. M., Hill, S. E., & Murray, D. R. (2018). The behavioral immune system: Current concerns and future directions. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 12(2), e12371. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12371
Benenson, J. F., Webb, C. E., & Wrangham, R. W. (2021). Self-protection as an adaptive female strategy. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 45, e128. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X21002417
Çetin, Y., Griffiths, C., Özel, Z. E. Y., & Kinay, H. (2016). Affective overload: The effect of emotive visual stimuli on target vocabulary retrieval. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 45, 275–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-014-9344-0
Chen, S., & Sussman, E. S. (2013). Context effects on auditory distraction. Biological Psychology, 94(2), 297–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.07.005
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Dantzer, R., & Kelley, K. W. (2006). Twenty years of research on cytokine-induced sickness behavior. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 21(2), 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2006.09.006
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Duncan, L. A., & Schaller, M. (2009). Prejudicial attitudes toward older adults may be exaggerated when people feel vulnerable to infectious disease: Evidence and implications. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 9, 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2009.01188.x
Figueroa, O., Polo, P., Torrico-Bazoberry, D., Fajardo, G., Rodriguez-Sickert, C., Valenzuela, N., Arenas, A., Pavez, P., Belinchon, M., Valdebenito, G., & Munoz-Reyes, J. A. (2025). The role of the behavioral immune system in the expression of short and long-term orientation in young Chilean men during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health, 25(501), 1–16.
Fitzgerald, C. J., Thompson, J. A., Cooper, N. T., & Lorentz, B. (2018). Belief Influences Gustation: Evidence of a Psychophysical Pathogen Avoidance Mechanism. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 4, 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-017-0132-6
Geary, D. (2007). Educating the evolved mind: Conceptual foundations for an evolutionary educational psychology. In J. S. Carlson & J. R. Levin (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on contemporary educational issues (pp. 1–99). Information Age Publishing.
Geary, D. (2008). An evolutionarily informed education science. Educational Psychologist, 43, 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520802392133
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Etienne, A., Ozdoba, C., Perrig, W. J., & Nirkko, A. C. (2007). On how high performers keep cool brains in situations of cognitive overload. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7(2), 75–89. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.7.2.75
Kavaliers, M., & Choleris, E. (2018). The role of social cognition in parasite and pathogen avoidance. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society b: Biological Sciences, 373(1751), 20170206. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0206
Lee, S. W., Schwarz, N., Taubman, D., & Hou, M. (2010). Sneezing in times of a flu pandemic: Public sneezing increases perception of unrelated risks and shifts preferences for federal spending. Psychological Science, 21(3), 375–377. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609359876
Lieberman, D., & Patrick, C. (2014). Are the behavioral immune system and pathogen disgust identical? Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 8(4), 244. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000018
Makhanova, A., & Shepherd, M. A. (2020). Behavioral immune system linked to responses to the threat of COVID-19. Personality and Individual Differences, 167, 110221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110221
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Makhanova, A., Plant, E. A., Ketterman, A. B., & Maner, J. K. (2022). Pathogen threat and intergroup prejudice using the minimal group paradigm: Evidence from a registered report. Evolution and Human Behavior, 43(5), 347–357.
Michalak, N. M., Sng, O., Wang, I. M., & Ackerman, J. (2020). Sounds of sickness: Can people identify infectious disease using sounds of coughs and sneezes? Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 287(1928), 20200944. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.0944
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Miller, S. L., & Maner, J. K. (2011). Sick body, vigilant mind: The biological immune system activates the behavioral immune system. Psychological Science, 22(12), 1467–1471. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611420166
Neuberg, S. L., Kenrick, D. T., & Schaller, M. (2011). Human threat management systems: Self-protection and disease avoidance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1042–1051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.08.011
Oaten, M., Stevenson, R. J., & Case, T. I. (2011). Disease avoidance as a functional basis for stigmatization. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London b: Biological Sciences, 366, 3433–3452. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0095
Park, J. H., Faulkner, J., & Schaller, M. (2003). Evolved disease avoidance processes and contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes and avoidance of people with physical disabilities. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 65–87. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910408854
Park, J. H., Schaller, M., & Crandall, C. S. (2007). Pathogen-avoidance mechanisms and the stigmatization of obese people. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 410–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.05.008
Pellegrino, R., Crandall, P. G., & Seo, H. S. (2016). Using olfaction and unpleasant reminders to reduce the intention-behavior gap in hand washing. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 18890. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep18890
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Randler, C., Desch, I. H., im Kampe, V. O., Wüst-Ackermann, P., Wilde, M., & Prokop, P. (2017). Anxiety, disgust and negative emotions influence food intake in humans. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 7, 11-15https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2016.11.005
Rozin, P., Millman, L., & Nemeroff, C. (1986). Operation of the laws of sympathetic magic in disgust and other domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 703–712.
Schaller, M. (2014). When and how disgust is and is not implicated in the behavioral immune system. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 8(4), 251. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000019
Schaller, M., & Murray, D. R. (2008). Pathogens, personality, and culture: Disease prevalence predicts worldwide variability in sociosexuality, extraversion, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 212. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.212
Schaller, M., & Park, J. H. (2011). The behavioral immune system (and why it matters). Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(2), 99–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402596
Sisakhti, M., Sachdev, P. S., & Batouli, S. A. H. (2021). The effect of cognitive load on the retrieval of long-term memory: An fMRI study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15, 700146. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.700146
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Spangler, D. P., Li, E. Y., Revi, G. S., Kubota, J. T., Cloutier, J., & Lauharatanahirun, N. (2024). The psychological costs of behavioral immunity following COVID-19 diagnosis. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 9899. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-59408-6
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295–312.
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., Kalyuga, S. (2011). Intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load. In M. Spector spsampsps S. Lajoie (Eds.) Cognitive load theory: Explorations in the learning sciences, instructional systems and performance technologies (pp. 57–69). Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_5
Szymkow, A., Frankowska, N., & Gałasińska, K. (2021). Social distancing from foreign individuals as a disease-avoidance mechanism: Testing the assumptions of the behavioral immune system theory during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Psychological Bulletin, 16(3), 1–28.
Thiebaut, G., Méot, A., Witt, A., Prokop, P., & Bonin, P. (2022). COVID-19 and memory: A novel contamination effect in memory. Evolutionary Psychology, 20(2), 1–10.
van Leeuwen, F., & Petersen, M. B. (2018). The behavioral immune system is designed to avoid infected individuals, not outgroups. Evolution and Human Behavior, 39(2), 226–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.12.003
Wormley, A. S., & Varnum, M. E. (2023). How is the behavioral immune system related to hygiene behaviors? Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 4, 100081.
Comments (0)