PERSPECTIVE – The Growing Global Benefits of Limiting Salt Intake: an urgent call from the World Hypertension League for more effective policy and public health initiatives

Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. Intersalt: an International Study of Electrolyte Excretion And Blood Pressure. Results for 24 h urinary sodium and potassium excretion. BMJ. 1988;297:319–28.

Article  Google Scholar 

Dickinson BD, Havas S. Reducing the population burden of cardiovascular disease by reducing sodium intake. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1460–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

He FJ, MacGregor GA. A comprehensive review on salt and health and current experience of worldwide salt reduction programmes. J Hum Hypertens. 2009;23:368–84.

Article  Google Scholar 

Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, Moran A, Lightwood JM, Pletcher MJ, et al. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. NEJM. 2010;362:590–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

He FJ, Li J, MacGregor GA. Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure. Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ. 2013;346:f1325.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aburto NJ, Ziolkovska A, Hooper L, Elliott P, Cappuccio FP, Meerpohl JJ. Effect of lower sodium intake on health: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2013;346:f1326.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mozaffarian D, Fahimi S, Singh GM, Micha R, Khatibzadeh S, Engell RE, et al. Global sodium consumption and death from cardiovascular causes. NEJM. 2014;371:624–34.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wong MMY, Arcand J, Leung AA, Thout SR, Campbell NRC, Webster J. The science of salt: a regularly updated systematic review of salt and health outcomes (December 2015–March 2016) from the World Hypertension League. J Clin Hypertens. 2017;19:322–32.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wang Y-J, Tzu-Lin Y, Shih M-C, Tu Y-K, Chien K-L. Dietary sodium intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2020;12:2934.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Huang L, Trieu K, Yoshimura S, Neal B, Woodward M, Campbell NRC, et al. Effect of dose and duration of reduction in dietary sodium on blood pressure levels: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ. 2020;368:m315.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

He FJ, Tan M, Ma Y, MacGregor GA. Salt reduction to prevent hypertension and cardiovascular disease. JACC. 2020;75:632–47.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen X, Du J, Wu X, Cao W, Sun S. Global burden attributable to high sodium intake from 1990 to 2019. Nutr Metab Cardiov Dis. 2021;31:3314–21.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ma Y, He FJ, Sun Q, Yuan C, KIeneker LM, Curhan GC, et al. 24-h urinary sodium and potassium excretion and cardiovascular risk. NEJM. 2022;386:252–63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Campbell NRC, Whelton PK, Orias M, Wainford RD, Cappuccio FP, Ide N. 2022 World Hypertension League, Resolve to Save Lives, International Society of Hypertension dietary sodium (salt) global call to action. J Hum Hypertens. 2023;37:428–37.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang K, Jin Y, Wang M, Liu J, Bu X, Muy J, et al. Global cardiovascular disease burden attributable to high sodium intake from 1990 to 2019. J Clin Hypertens. 2023;25:868–79.

Article  Google Scholar 

WHO. WHO global report on sodium intake reduction. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023.

Song J, Tan M, Wang C, Brown MK, Pombo-Rodrigues S, MacGregor GA, et al. Salt intake, blood pressure and cardiovascular disease mortality in England, 2003–2018. J Hypertens. 2023;41:1713–20.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Moreno SV, Grimes C, Bolton KA, Uddin R, Siopis G, Maddison R, et al. The burden of cardiovascular disease attributable to high dietary sodium intake in Australia between 1990 and 2019. J Hypertens. 2024;42:1163–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. NEJM. 2001;344:3–10.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

He FJ, MacGregor GA. Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Implications for public health. J Hum Hypertens. 2002;16:761–70.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pimenta E, Gaddam KK, Oparil S, Aban I, Husain S, Dell’Italia LJ, et al. Effects of dietary sodium reduction on blood pressure in subjects with resistant hypertension: results from a randomized trial. Hypertension. 2009;54:475–81.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Graudal NA, Hubeck-Graudal T, Jürgens G. Effects of low-sodium diet vs. high-sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterol, and triglyceride (Cochrane Review). Am J Hypertens. 2012;25:1–15.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rose G, Day S. The population mean predicts the number of deviant individuals. BMJ. 1990;310:1031–4.

Article  Google Scholar 

Little R, Ellison DH. Modifying dietary sodium and potassium intake: an end to the ‘Salt Wars’? Hypertension. 2024;81:415–25.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Weinberger MH, Fineberg NS. Sodium and volume sensitivity of blood pressure: age and pressure change over time. Hypertension. 1991;18:67–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang G, Labarthe D. The cost-effectiveness of interventions designed to reduce sodium intake. J Hypertension. 2011;29:1693–99.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

United Nations, DESA, Population Division. World population prospects 2024. http://population.un.org/wpp/.

Wolf-Maier K, Cooper RS, Banegas JR, Giampaoli S, Hense H-W, Joffres M, et al. Hypertension prevalence and blood pressure levels in 6 European countries, Canada, and the United States. JAMA. 2003;289:2363–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chapman N, Ching SM, Konradi AO, Nuyt AM, Khan T, Twumasi-Ankrah B, et al. Arterial hypertension in women: state of the art and knowledge gaps. Hypertension. 2023;80:1140–49.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Barris CT, Faulkner SL, Belin de Chantemèle EJ. Salt sensitivity of blood pressure in women. Hypertension. 2023;80:268–78.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R, Prospective Studies Collaboration. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:1903–13.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

World Population Review. Caucasian countries. 2024. https://worldpopulationreview.com/countryrankings/caucasian-countries. Accessed 14 Feb 2025.

Newsweek.com. Map reveals world’s 10 fastest growing populations. 2024. https://www.newsweek.com/map-world-population-growing-fastest-1937121. Accessed 14 Feb 2025.

Richardson SI, Freedman BI, Ellison DH, Rodriguez CJ. Salt sensitivity: a review with a focus on non-hispanic blacks and hispanics. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2013;7:170–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

GBD 2019 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet. 2020;396:1223–49.

Article  Google Scholar 

Nawaz S, Chinnadurai R, Al-Chalabi S, Evans P, Kalra PA, Syed AA, et al. Obesity and chronic kidney disease: a current review. Obes Sci Prac. 2023;9:61–74.

Article  Google Scholar 

Bailey MA, Dhaun N. Salt sensitivity: causes, consequences, and recent advances–review. Hypertension. 2024;81:476–89.

Article  CAS  PubMed 

Comments (0)

No login
gif