Author contributions

Michael R. King contributed to the conception and design of this study, analysis and interpretation of the data, and drafting the article. Elizabeth De Souza and Thomas A. Anderson contributed to the conception and design of this study, the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data, and drafting the article.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Ellen Wang, MD, Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Lucile Packard Children's Hospital Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA for assistance with electronic medical record data management.

Disclosures

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Funding

All research was performed using institutional funds alone.

Prior conference presentations

This work was presented at the 2022 Society for Pediatric Anesthesia and the American Academy of Pediatrics Spring Meeting (1–3 April, Tampa, Florida, USA) and the 2022 Association of University Anesthesiologists Annual Meeting (virtual).

Editorial responsibility

This submission was handled by Dr. Philippe Richebé, Associate Editor, Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie.