1Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado

2Hopkins Business of Health Initiative, Baltimore, Maryland

3Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

4Carey Business School, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

5National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts

6Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

aEmail for corresponding author: [email protected]

Investigation performed at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, and the University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado

Disclosures: This work was supported in part by the Hopkins Business of Health Initiative and grant number T32HS000029 from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. The Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest forms are provided with the online version of the article (https://links.lww.com/JBJS/H771).

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