Saha M, Sarkar A. Review on multiple facets of drug resistance: a rising challenge in the 21st century. J Xenobiot. 2021;11(4):197–214.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Abraham EP. The antibiotics. Compr Biochem. 1963;11(4):181–224.

Article  Google Scholar 

Breijyeh Z, Jubeh B, Karaman R. Resistance of gram-negative bacteria to current antibacterial agents and approaches to resolve it. Molecules. 2020;25(6):1340.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sengupta S, Barman P, Lo J. Opportunities to overcome implementation challenges of infection prevention and control in low-middle income countries. Curr Treat Options Infect Dis. 2019;11(3):267–80.

Article  Google Scholar 

Bassetti M, Peghin M, Vena A, Giacobbe DR. Treatment of infections due to MDR gram-negative bacteria. Front Med. 2019;6(April):1–10.

Google Scholar 

Hanberger H, Antonelli M, Holmbom M, Lipman J, Pickkers P, Leone M, et al. Infections, antibiotic treatment and mortality in patients admitted to ICUs in countries considered to have high levels of antibiotic resistance compared to those with low levels. BMC Infect Dis. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-513.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kadri SS, Lai YL, Warner S, Strich JR, Babiker A, Ricotta EE, et al. Inappropriate empirical antibiotic therapy for bloodstream infections based on discordant in-vitro susceptibilities: a retrospective cohort analysis of prevalence, predictors, and mortality risk in US hospitals. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21(2):241–51.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hawkey PM, Warren RE, Livermore DM, McNulty CAM, Enoch DA, Otter JA, et al. Treatment of infections caused by multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria: Report of the British society for antimicrobial chemotherapy/healthcare infection society/british infection association joint working party. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;2018(73):2–78.

Google Scholar 

Crooks NH, Snaith C, Webster D, Gao F, Hawkey P. Clinical review: probiotics in critical care. Critical Care. 2012;16(6):237.

Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Maina M, Mwaniki P, Odira E, Kiko N, McKnight J, Schultsz C, et al. Antibiotic use in Kenyan public hospitals: prevalence, appropriateness and link to guideline availability. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;99:10–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dadgostar P. Antimicrobial resistance: implications and costs. Infect Drug Resist. 2019;12:3903–10.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Musila L, Kyany’a C, Maybank R, Stam J, Oundo V, Sang W. Detection of diverse carbapenem and multidrug resistance genes and high-risk strain types among carbapenem non-susceptible clinical isolates of target gram-negative bacteria in Kenya. PLoS ONE. 2021;16:e0246937.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mutua JM, Njeru JM, Musyoki AM. Multidrug resistant bacterial infections in severely ill COVID-19 patients admitted in a national referral and teaching hospital. Kenya BMC Infect Dis. 2022;22(1):1–12.

Google Scholar 

Wangai FK, Masika MM, Lule GN, Karari EM, Maritim MC, Jaoko WG, et al. Bridging antimicrobial resistance knowledge gaps: the East African perspective on a global problem. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(2):e0212131.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bruno L. Standard operating procedures bacteriology. J Chem Inf Model. 2019;53(9):1689–99.

Google Scholar 

Lewis SM, Kumari S. Guidelines on Standard Operating Procedures for Haemathology. 2000;1–80.

Team C. M100 Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. Vol. 8, Journal of Services Marketing. 2021. 18–260 p.

Silago V, Kovacs D, Msanga DR, Seni J, Matthews L, Oravcová K, et al. Bacteremia in critical care units at Bugando Medical Centre, Mwanza, Tanzania: the role of colonization and contaminated cots and mothers’ hands in cross-transmission of multidrug resistant gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2020;9(1):58.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Iwuafor AA, Ogunsola FT, Oladele RO, Oduyebo OO, Desalu I, Egwuatu CC, et al. Incidence, clinical outcome and risk factors of intensive care unit infections in the lagos university teaching hospital (LUTH), Lagos. Nigeria PLoS ONE. 2016;11(10):1–15.

Google Scholar 

Siwakoti S, Subedi A, Sharma A, Baral R, Bhattarai NR, Khanal B. Incidence and outcomes of multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria infections in intensive care unit from Nepal—a prospective cohort study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2018;7:114.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sebre S, Abegaz WE, Seman A, Awoke T, Desalegn Z, Mihret W, et al. Bacterial profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from inanimate hospital environments at Tikur Anbessa specialized teaching hospital, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia Infect Drug Resist. 2020;13:4439–48.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Uc-Cachón AH, Gracida-Osorno C, Luna-Chi IG, Jiménez-Guillermo JG, Molina-Salinas GM. High prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among gram-negative isolated bacilli in intensive care units at a tertiary-care hospital in Yucatán Mexico. Medicina. 2019;55:588.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wani FA, Bandy A, Alenzi MJS, Alzarea AI, Alanazi AS, Sayeed MU, et al. Resistance patterns of gram-negative bacteria recovered from clinical specimens of intensive care patients. Microorganisms. 2021;9(11):1–11.

Article  Google Scholar 

Blot S, Ruppé E, Harbarth S, Asehnoune K, Poulakou G, Luyt CE, et al. Healthcare-associated infections in adult intensive care unit patients: Changes in epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention and contributions of new technologies. Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2022;1:70.

Google Scholar 

WHO. World health statistics 2016: monitoring health for the SDGs, sustainable development goals. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016. 121 p. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/206498. Accessed 8 Apr 2023.

Saharman YR, Karuniawati A, Severin JA, Verbrugh HA. Infections and antimicrobial resistance in intensive care units in lower—middle income countries : a scoping review. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2021;10:1–19.

Article  Google Scholar 

Mekes ElA, Zahlane K, Ait SL, Tadlaoui OA, Barakate M. The clinical and epidemiological risk factors of infections due to multi-drug resistant bacteria in an adult intensive care unit of university hospital center in Marrakesh-Morocco. J Infect Public Health. 2020;13(4):637–43.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Agaba P, Tumukunde J, Tindimwebwa JVB, Kwizera A. Nosocomial bacterial infections and their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns among patients in Ugandan intensive care units: a cross sectional study. BMC Res Notes. 2017;10(1):349.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wu C, Lu J, Ruan L, Yao J. Tracking epidemiological characteristics and risk factors of multi-drug resistant bacteria in intensive care units. Infect Drug Resist. 2023;16:1499–509.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

WHO. Global report on infection prevention and control executive summary. Geneva: WHO; 2022.

Google Scholar 

Llor C, Bjerrum L. Antimicrobial resistance: Risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem. Ther Adv Drug Safety. 2014;5(6):229–41.

Article  Google Scholar 

Arulkumaran N, Routledge M, Schlebusch S, Lipman J, Conway MA. Antimicrobial-associated harm in critical care: a narrative review. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(2):225–35.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Despotovic A, Milosevic B, Milosevic I, Mitrovic N, Cirkovic A, Jovanovic S, et al. Hospital-acquired infections in the adult intensive care unit—Epidemiology, antimicrobial resistance patterns, and risk factors for acquisition and mortality. Am J Infect Control. 2020;48(10):1211–5.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thomas S, Raman R, Idikula J, Brahmadathan N. Alterations in oropharyngeal flora in patients with a nasogastric tube: a cohort study. Crit Care Med. 1992;20(12):1677–80.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Petersen SM, Greisen G, Krogfelt KA. Nasogastric feeding tubes from a neonatal department yield high concentrations of potentially pathogenic bacteria—even 1 d after insertion. Pediatr Res. 2016;80(3):395–400.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Teramoto S. Nasogastric tube feeding is a cause of aspiration pneumonia in ventilated patients. Eur Respir J. 2006;27(2):436–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rosenfeld M, Ann CL. Pathogens and atherosclerosis: update on the potential contribution of multiple infectious organisms to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Thromb Haemost. 2011;106(11):858–67.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Simonsen JR, Järvinen A, Harjutsalo V, Forsblom C, Groop P-H, Lehto M. The association between bacterial infections and the risk of coronary heart disease in type 1 diabetes. J Intern Med. 2020;288(6):711–24.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Arancibia F, Bauer TT, Ewig S, Mensa J, Gonzalez J, Niederman MS, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia due to gram-negative bacteria and pseudomonas aeruginosa: incidence, risk, and prognosis. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(16):1849.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lange P. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and risk of infection. Pneumonol Alergol Pol. 2009;77(3):284–8.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wu C, Lu J, Ruan L, Yao J. Tracking epidemiological characteristics and risk factors of multi-drug resistant bacteria in intensive care units. Infection and Drug Resistance. 2023;16:1499–509.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Odoyo E, Matano D, Tiria F, Georges M, Kyanya C, Wahome S, et al. Environmental contamination across multiple hospital departments with multidrug-resistant bacteria pose an elevated risk of healthcare-associated infections in Kenyan hospitals. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2023;12(1):22.

Article