Abstract

Motor imagery (MI)-based neurofeedback (NFB) has recently been shown to improve MI ability using visual, auditory, vibrotactile, and proprioceptive modalities; however, no study has compared all four of these sensory modalities to each other and to a control group. This randomized controlled trial aimed to examine the effects of MI-based NFB on MI ability (the ability to improve one’s motor abilities through visualizing movements) using visual, auditory, vibrotactile, and proprioceptive modalities. Fifty healthy young participants were recruited for this study and were randomly assigned to the control group or an NFB group using either visual, auditory, vibrotactile, or proprioceptive sensory feedback. All participants completed a pre-training evaluation of 20 trials without NFB. Next, 60 trials of the MI task (imagining themselves performing maximal dorsiflexion of the wrist joint) were performed during the training phase. After training, all groups were again assessed without NFB for 20 trials. For each NFB group, EEG was measured during the MI task, and event-related desynchronization (ERD) in motor-related areas was fed back to the participants in real time. The pre- and post-training results of ERD and subjective MI vividness were compared for each group; the results showed that ERD significantly increased after training in all four groups that performed NFB (p < 0.05) and that MI vividness increased significantly after training in all five groups (p < 0.05). The present study demonstrated that MI-based NFB using visual, auditory, vibrotactile, and proprioceptive modalities improved MI ability.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Clinical Trial

UMIN000058916

Funding Statement

This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP20K11173.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

Yes

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Kyoto Tachibana University (approval no. 22-49).

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

Yes

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

Yes

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Yes

11 Data Availability Statement

The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The data are not publicly available because they contain information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.

8 Abbreviation listEEGelectroencephalographyERDevent-related desynchronizationKRknowledge of resultsMImotor imageryNFBneurofeedbackVASvisual analog scale.